These findings suggest that undiagnosed NIDDM is not a benign condition. Clinically significant morbidity is present at diagnosis and for years before diagnosis. During this preclinical period, treatment is not being offered for diabetes or its specific complications, despite the fact that reduction in hyperglycemia, hypertension, and cardiovascular risk factors is believed to benefit patients. Imprecise dating of diabetes onset also obscures investigations of the etiology of NIDDM and studies of the nature and importance of risk factors for diabetes complications.

Purpose To describe the prevalence of and risk factors for epiretinal membrane (ERM) in a multi-ethnic population and to evaluate possible racial/ethnic differences. Design Cross-sectional study. Participants Participants of the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), examined at the second visit of the MESA when retinal photography was performed. Methods Data on 5960 participants aged 45 to 84 years from MESA, including white, blacks, Hispanic and Chinese from six United States communities, were analysed. ERM was assessed from digital non-stereoscopic fundus photographs and defined as cellophane macular reflex (CMR) without retinal folds or pre-retinal macular fibrosis (PMF) with retinal folds. Risk factors were assessed from standardized interviews, clinical examinations, and laboratory investigations. Main outcome measures ERM prevalence by ethnic/racial group, and risk factors associated with ERM. Results The prevalence of any ERM was 28.9%, of which 25.1% were CMR and 3.8% were PMF. The prevalence of ERM was significantly higher in Chinese (39.0%), compared to Hispanics (29.3%), whites (27.5%), and blacks (26.2%), p<0.001. In multivariable models, increasing age (odds ratio [OR] 1.19, 95% confidence intervals [CI], 1.06, 1.34, per year increase in age), diabetes (OR 1.92, 95% CI, 1.39, 2.65) and hypercholesterolemia (OR 1.33, 95% CI, 1.04, 1.69) were significantly associated with CMR. Conclusions This study showed that ERM was significantly more common in Chinese persons compared to whites, blacks and Hispanics. Risk factors for epiretinal membrane were increasing age, presence of diabetes and hypercholesterolemia.

The burden of premature death and health loss from ESRD is well described. Less is known regarding the burden of cardiovascular disease attributable to reduced GFR. We estimated the prevalence of reduced GFR categories 3, 4, and 5 (not on RRT) for 188 countries at six time points from 1990 to 2013. Relative risks of cardiovascular outcomes by three categories of reduced GFR were calculated by pooled random effects meta-analysis. Results are presented as deaths for outcomes of cardiovascular disease and ESRD and as disability-adjusted life years for outcomes of cardiovascular disease, GFR categories 3, 4, and 5, and ESRD. In 2013, reduced GFR was associated with 4% of deaths worldwide, or 2.2 million deaths (95% uncertainty interval [95% UI], 2.0 to 2.4 million). More than half of these attributable deaths were cardiovascular deaths (1.2 million; 95% UI, 1.1 to 1.4 million), whereas 0.96 million (95% UI, 0.81 to 1.0 million) were ESRD-related deaths. Compared with metabolic risk factors, reduced GFR ranked below high systolic BP, high body mass index, and high fasting plasma glucose, and similarly with high total cholesterol as a risk factor for disability-adjusted life years in both developed and developing world regions. In conclusion, by 2013, cardiovascular deaths attributed to reduced GFR outnumbered ESRD deaths throughout the world. Studies are needed to evaluate the benefit of early detection of CKD and treatment to decrease these deaths.

The loss of independence and mobility associated with decreased visual functioning and visual loss were major concerns. Moderate, severe NPDR and PDR associated with visual impairment have a significant impact on HRQL, particularly in the areas of independence, mobility, leisure and self-care activities.

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