Data collected through multi-item Likert scales that contain reversed items often exhibit problems, such as unexpected factor structures and diminished scale reliabilities. These problems arise when respondents select responses on the same side of the scale neutral point for both reversed and nonreversed items, a phenomenon the authors call "misresponse." Across four experiments and an exploratory study using published data, the authors find that misresponse to reversed Likert items averaged approximately 20%, twice the level identified as problematic in previous simulation studies. Counter to prevailing thought, the patterns of misresponse and response latency across manipulated items could not be attributed to respondent inattention or acquiescence. Instead, the pattern supports an item verification difficulty explanation, which holds that task complexity, and thus misresponse and response latency, increases with the number of cognitive operations required for a respondent to compare a scale item with his or her belief. The observed results are well explained by the constituent comparison model.

Reference price effects on consumer price perceptions are often explained by Helson's adaptation-level theory, in which the cognitive representation of reference price is the prototype of the relevant category. However, recent conceptualizations and empirical evidence suggest the possibility of an exemplar model, which may be specified using Volkmann's range theory or Parducci's range-frequency theory.In two experiments, these three contextual models of reference price effects are pitted against one another. Based on the MANOVA and model fitting, range-frequency theory accounted for reference price effects that the other theories could not, suggesting that consumers compare the target price against specific members of the category rather than the category prototype. A third experiment demonstrated that range and frequency effects are moderated by the stimulus presentation condition, suggesting that consumers place greater weight on extreme prices anchoring the range for internal reference prices than for external reference prices.

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Within the behavioral literature, two basic explanations of the pioneering advantage have been offered. Early work focused on order-based explanations. More recently, schema-based explanations have also been suggested. The authors propose a mediated-effects model of the pioneering advantage and test the model in two separate longitudinal studies. Both experiments support the proposed model. The authors find that experience order and pioneerstatus have additive effects on brand preference such that perceptions of first-in-market and first-experienced brands are more favorable, suggesting that both explanations are operative. The authors also provide evidence that the effects of pioneer status on brand preference are mediated by attitude toward the brand and company credibility, while the effects of experience order on brand preference are mediated by attitude toward the brand and attribute recall. These data support the notion that the effect of pioneer status on brand preference is the result of both brandlevel and company-level associations.