Morphological observation and measurements of endocasts have played a vital role in research on the evolution of the human brain. However, endocasts have never been used to investigate how the human brain has evolved since the Neolithic period. We investigated the evolution of the human brain during the Holocene by comparing virtual endocasts from Beiqian site (a Neolithic Chinese site) and a sample of Chinese modern-day humans. Standardized measurements and indices were taken to provide quantification of the overall endocast shape, including the length, breadth, height, frontal breadth, and the ratio of frontal breadth to breadth, as well as the cranial capacity. We found that the height of the endocasts and cranial capacity have decreased between our two samples, whereas the frontal breadth and sexual dimorphism have increased. We argue that these changes can be caused by random genetic mutation and epigenetic change in response to changes in the environment.

The Beiqian site located in Jimo city, Qingdao, a few kilometers from the modern coastline was excavated in 2007, 2009 and 2011. A large number of human bones from the early Dawenkou period were unearthed. Through C and N stable isotopic analysis, the food structure of the "Beiqian" ancestors was reconstructed and the influence of terrestrial and marine resources on their lifestyle was discussed. Based on the δ 13 C and δ 15N stable isotopic values of human bone collagen, the analytical results obtained through a ternary mixed model reveal that the food sources of the Beiqian ancestors included about 44.1% marine species (probably shellfish and fish), 34.1% C4 plants (possibly millet), and 21.8% land animals. These results indicate that they lived mainly from fishing and farming, supplemented by hunting or poultry raising. Compared with other sites in the same period, the stable isotope results show that 5000-6000 years ago, the lifestyles of ancestors in the Yangtze River basin, Yellow River basin, Northern coastal area and inland area were very different. The ancestors from the Yangtze River basin focused on rice farming and fishing, whereas the ancestors in the Yellow River basin farmed millet and raised animals. Those in coastal areas relied mostly on farming and marine fishing. The food structure of prehistoric ancestors can demonstrate those people's adaptation to their living environment. For example, the utilization of wild versus domesticated seasonal food resources. Although in some cases direct speculation can be made using remnants of food, such information is very limited. Furthermore, remnants more likely reflect the personal preference for a particular food rather than the actual food structure. Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) stable isotopic analysis of human bone collagen makes it possible to describe the food structure of ancient inhabitants, and provides very useful information including regional lifestyle and reconstruction of social structure. This research approach has recently become of increasing interest in ar-It has been known that proteins from animal bones may reflect the protein composition from the human diet. This means that the stable isotope ratios from human bone could record the protein composition of an individual's diet in the past. Consequently, stable isotopic analysis can recapitulate the food structure of prehistoric ancestors and the dietary differences between individuals. C stable isotopic analysis is often used to differentiate the C3 (temperate plants such as vegetables, fruits and wheat) and C4 (tropical or dry plants such as millet, maize and sugar cane) plant ecosystems [4], or marine and terrestrial ecosystems [5]. In food chains, animals at upper trophic level have  15N values of 3%-5% accumulating from animals at lower level as food. Thus stable  15N isotopic analysis can determine animal

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Jar burial is a particular burial practice generally used in the Neolithic period of China.However, the rarity of finding prenatal individuals limits the ability to study their treatment in jar burial contexts. In this paper, to study the postmortem treatment of this specific age further, we focus on three jar burials of infant individuals excavated in 2021 at the Gangshang site in China, where the skeletal remains were relatively well preserved. The skeletal remains of three well-preserved individuals are presented into inverted ceramic tripods near the residential area and with a crouched posture. In terms of this condition, we apply the osteometric method to estimate the range and mean of age at death for each individual investigated. Meanwhile, we use micro-computed tomography (CT) scans to help judge the degree of microbial bioerosion. Besides, histological analysis on skeletal remains combined with the Oxford Histological Index (OHI) assessment allows us to estimate the developmental stage at the time of death by analyzing the results of micro-CT scans. By using osteometric methods, the results show that the gestational age of the three individuals is 22-26, 24-28, and 22-26 weeks, respectively. The results of the micro-CT scans indicate that all three fetuses died shortly after birth, or had died in their mother's uterus before birth, with the OHI score of 5. Moreover, we indeed observe infant skeleton remains with no bacterial bioerosion, indicating that it is effective using this method to judge the developmental stage at the time of death with a specific taphonomic environment in the Gangshang site of the Dawenkou culture period. Combined with the placement of the jars in which the three infants were buried, it is believed that this unique placement method was intentional and specific to the infant deaths.These results are instructive for exploring the postmortem treatment of dead infants by ancient residents of the Dawenkou culture period (4200 BC-2600 BC) in Shandong Province, China, and the significance and possible causes of the unique burial type.

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