No abstract

Batesian mimicry may result in remarkable cases of phenotypic convergence that represent classic examples of evolution through natural selection. The existence of mimicry systems among coral snakes, however, remains controversial because of contradictions between the predictions of mimetic theory and the empirical patterns of co-occurrence and species abundance. Here, we analyze the geographic distribution of coral snake species of the genus Micrurus and populations of the false coral snake Atractus latifrons in Amazonia, and perform ecological niche modeling (ENM) analyzes to generate potential geographic distributions of species of Micrurus and A. latifrons, identify patterns of co-occurrence and assess whether the distribution of A. latifrons coincides with the distribution of Micrurus species, which could suggest the existence of a possible mimetic relationship between the species. We identifi ed six Micrurus species that may represent mimetic models for A. latifrons. The results of the co-occurrence analysis corroborates the results from ENM, indicating that chromatic patterns of A.latifrons and their respective model species are aggregated. Our study suggests that all color patterns of A. latifrons -including the tricolor monads, and the more common tricolor dyads and tricolor tetrads -may benefi t from the resemblance with other Micrurus species as perfect and imperfect mimics.

Protected areas are the most frequently used tool for the mitigation of threats to biodiversity. However, without effective management, the creation of new protected areas may be ineffective. In Brazil, protected areas must have both a governing body (consultative or deliberative council) and an official management plan. Here, we analyzed general trends and patterns in the approval of the management plans for Brazilian federal protected areas. We considered all federal protected areas, and compiled data on (i) the year the area was created, (ii) the type of protected area (integral protection vs. sustainable use), (iii) year its management plan was approved, (iv) year in which the management plan was revised after its approval, (v) total area (in hectares), and (vi) the biome in which the area is located. We stablished three groups of protected area: 1) Group A: protected areas created prior to 1979, 2) Group B: protected areas created between 1979 and 1999, and 3) Group C: protected areas created between 2000 to the present time. Finally, we tested whether time for the approval of the management plan suffered a simultaneous effect of the type of biome and type of categories of protected area (strictly protected vs. sustainable use areas). We found 211 (63.17% of the 334) protected areas with management plan. On average, the time taken for the creation and approval of a management plan far exceeds the deadlines (5 yrs.) defined under current Brazilian law. All Brazilian biomes are poorly covered by protected areas with effective management plans, with the highest and lowest value observed in the Pantanal (100%) and Caatinga (46.42%), respectively. Our results suggest that the effectiveness of many federal protected areas in Brazil can be reduced considerably by the lack of a management plan, with deleterious consequences for the country’s principal conservation strategies.