Pharmaceutical care, meant to complement a proper drug supply system, is a key component of a robust health care system and is the direct, responsible provision of medication-related care designed to achieve definite outcomes that improve a patient's quality of life. Beyond simply dispensing medicine, pharmaceutical care promotes adherence to therapeutic regimens and addresses problems such as overdosage, sub-therapeutic dosage, adverse drug reactions, medication errors, and untreated indications. The dearth of health care workers trained in pharmaceutical care coupled with inadequate access to medications creates multiple disease management challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), which has 25% of the world's disease burden but only 1.3% of the world's health workforce. To prevent and treat HIV/AIDS, TB, malaria, and other maladies, the need is urgent to train and integrate the contributions of current workers who handle medications for major and minor health problems, especially those in licensed pharmacies and drug shops. On the aggregate in SSA, pharmaceutical care is in a nascent stage in most countries but needs to grow as a discipline as well as be tailored to specific country needs. The SSA solution lies in establishing health care system components where cadres of workers engage in pharmaceutical care practices, as well as store and distribute medications. Curriculum changes in pre-service education, more continuing education for the health workforce in place, and training pharmacists to supervise a lower cadre of assistants and others are among the elements in a pharmaceutical care paradigm shift which is the focus of this article.

The satisfaction with overall quality of pharmaceutical services received by participants was positive. Longer waiting times resulted in lower patient satisfaction. High patient load may be the cause of the long waiting time and the inadequate duration of interaction between pharmacist and the patient.

PurposeThis study assessed the incidence and types of medication errors, interventions and outcomes in patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in selected HIV treatment centres in Nigeria.MethodsOf 69 health facilities that had program for active screening of medication errors, 14 were randomly selected for prospective cohort assessment. All patients who filled/refilled their antiretroviral medications between February 2009 and March 2011 were screened for medication errors using study-specific pharmaceutical care daily worksheet (PCDW). All potential or actual medication errors identified, interventions provided and the outcomes were documented in the PCDW. Interventions included pharmaceutical care in HIV training for pharmacists amongst others. Chi-square was used for inferential statistics and P<0.05 indicated statistical significance.ResultsOf 6,882 participants, 67.0% were female and 93.5% were aged ≥15years old. The participants had 110,070 medications filling/refilling visits, average (±SD) of 16.0 (±0.3) visits per patient over the observation period. Patients were followed up for 9172.5 person-years. The number of drug items dispensed to participants was 305,584, average of 2.8 (±0.1) drug items per patient. The incidence rate of medication errors was 40.5 per 100 person-years. The occurrence of medication errors was not associated with participants’ sex and age (P>0.05). The major medications errors identified were 26.4% incorrect ART regimens prescribed; 19.8% potential drug-drug interaction or contraindication present; and 16.6% duration and/or frequency of medication inappropriate. Interventions provided included 67.1% cases of prescriber contacted to clarify/resolve errors and 14.7% cases of patient counselling and education; 97.4% of potential/actual medication error(s) were resolved.ConclusionThe incidence rate of medication errors was somewhat high; and majority of identified errors were related to prescription of incorrect ART regimens and potential drug-drug interactions; the prescriber was contacted and the errors were resolved in majority of cases. Active screening for medication errors is feasible in resource-limited settings following a capacity building intervention.

BackgroundThe use of medicines is an essential component of many public health programs (PHPs). Medicines are important not only for their capacity to treat and prevent diseases. The public confidence in healthcare system is inevitably linked to their confidence in the availability of safe and effective medicines and the measures for ensuring their rational use. However, pharmacy services component receives little or no attention in most public health programs in developing countries. This article describes the strategies, lessons learnt, and some accomplishments of Howard University Pharmacists and Continuing Education (HU-PACE) Centre towards improving hospital pharmacy practice through PHP in Nigeria.MethodIn a cross-sectional survey, 60 hospital pharmacies were randomly selected from 184 GHAIN-supported health facilities. The assessment was conducted at baseline and repeated after at least 12 months post-intervention using a study-specific instrument. Interventions included engagement of stakeholders; provision of standards for infrastructural upgrade; development of curricula and modules for training of pharmacy personnel; provision of job aids and tools amongst others. A follow-up hands-on skill enhancement based on identified gaps was conducted. Chi-square was used for inferential statistics. All reported p-values were 2-tailed at 95% confidence interval.ResultsThe mean duration of service provision at post-intervention assessment was 24.39 (95% CI, 21.70–27.08) months. About 16.7% of pharmacies reported been trained in HIV care at pre-intervention compared to 83.3% at post-intervention. The proportion of pharmacies with audio-visual privacy for patient counseling increased significantly from 30.9% at pre-intervention to 81.4% at post-intervention. Filled prescriptions were cross-checked by pharmacist (61.9%) and pharmacy technician (23.8%) before dispensing at pre-intervention compared to pharmacist (93.1%) and pharmacy technician (6.9%) at post intervention. 40.0% of pharmacies reported tracking consumption of drugs at pre-intervention compared to 98.3% at post-intervention; while 81.7% of pharmacies reported performing periodic stock reconciliation at pre-intervention compared to 100.0% at post-intervention. 36.5% of pharmacies were observed providing individual counseling on medication use to patients at pre-intervention compared to 73.2% at post-intervention; and 11.7% of pharmacies had evidence of monitoring and reporting of suspected adverse drug reaction at pre-intervention compared to 73.3% at post-intervention. The institution of access to patients’ clinical information by pharmacists in all pharmacies at post-intervention was a paradigm shift.ConclusionThrough public health program, HU-PACE created an enabling environment and improved capacity of pharmacy personnel for quality HIV/AIDS and TB services. This has contributed in diverse ways to better monitoring of patients on pharmacotherapy by pharmacists through access of pharmacists to patients’ clinical information.

This article seeks to address why the pragmatic approach is of utility to the educational researcher. The article's objectives will address the major contributory thinkers of Peirce, James, and Dewey, and demonstrate why pragmatism is not an epistemology but best considered a methodological approach, and why it is thus, suited to the utility of both quantitative and qualitative methodology and method. It will do this first, by reviewing such arguments in 2 sections: in the first, I will introduce the philosophical assumptions & beliefs relevant in the role of knowledge acquisition, whilst explaining the key theoretical beliefs of the 3 classic pragmatists. I will then summarise how it is not considered an epistemological approach; albeit the approach demonstrates ontological and epistemological awareness. In the second half of the article, I will explore through the logic of justification why it is most beneficial as a methodology. The article fundamentally addresses, through example of an educational research inquiry-how pragmatic methodology does not merely reduce all that is known and experienced to binary assumption for the researcher, like its epistemic competitors. But by evaluating social scientific knowledge via reflexivity and quantitative methods, research thus, becomes a social endeavour-for the practitioner & researcher alike. The article will also conclude noting such distinction between Peircean pragmatic method and that of more contemporary theorists, whilst challenging why the former is most suitable for the investigative pragmatic researcher.