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The demands of today's ever-changing work environment often require that employees engage in intellectual risk taking (IRT) by being resourceful, trying new things, and asking questions even at the risk of making a mistake or feeling inadequate. This research seeks to identify variables that increase student IRT. Controlling for individual differences in motivation known to affect IRT (i.e., self-efficacy and learning goal orientation), we find that perceptions of work methods autonomy and high instructor expectations increase student IRT. Using a sample of 241 students, this study finds that the more autonomy students perceive they are given and the higher they perceive instructor expectations, the more metacognitive behaviors they will engage in, and ultimately, the more intellectual risks they will take. These results have important implications for management educators who seek to prepare students to succeed in their careers.

Publication of meta-analyses concluding that conscientiousness predicts performance has increased the use of personality tests in police officer selection batteries. In this study, we argue that it is not always appropriate to blindly apply these meta-analytic findings in practice. Criteria for inclusion into meta-analyses for practical purposes are presented, as well as results of a meta-analysis based on these criteria. The results showed conscientiousness was neither an effective nor consistent predictor of law enforcement performance. Practitioners are cautioned against believing that there is good evidence that conscientiousness scales predict law enforcement job performance. B arrick and Mount's meta-analysis on the relation between personality and job performance is considered a seminal article in the field of personnel selection. This study and others that followed it 1 have led to a general acceptance of the five-factor model of personality and its usefulness in predicting performance for all jobs. As a result, the use of personality tests as alternative selection devices in personnel selection has been advocated, specifically for selection of police officers. 2 Meta-analysis has been the foundation for theory and conclusions regarding the predictive validity of personality tests. 3 Often overlooked, however, are the practicalities of translating meta-analytic results to the practice of personnel selection. We argue in this paper that practitioners must be cautious in applying meta-analytic results to actual applicant settings. General problems with meta-analysis have been discussed elsewhere, 4 and have been noted in other fields such as medicine. 5 In this paper, we specifically address problems with indiscriminately applying meta-analytic results to real-world settings, using law enforcement occupations as an example. This is especially timely since the Department of Justice (DOJ) has advocated the use of personality tests to reduce adverse impact. 6 This paper has several goals. First, we examined the basis for the assertion that personality tests predict entry-level law enforcement officer performance. This discussion will focus on the difficulties associated with practical applications of meta-analytic results. In order to guide practitioners, we identify inclusion criteria that increase the

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore how educators can benefit from data on teaching methods or sources of learning used for the leader development of undergraduate students. To advance the field, the authors contend that programs for leader development need to clearly identify what area of development is being improved (e.g. conceptual understanding, personal growth, skill building, feedback), intentionally build connections toward those objectives for development, and incorporate experience within the structure of undergraduate education to facilitate better outcomes. Design/methodology/approach – Ratings on the teaching methods used by participants with experience facilitating leader development activities for undergraduate students were solicited in an online survey. Each participant (n=66) responded to questions about 25 sources of learning for leader development. Questions asked the degree to which each source of learning provided the learning outcomes of conceptual understanding, feedback, skill building, and/or personal growth to undergraduate students. Findings – Participants perceived small group discussion, and film/television clips to promote conceptual understanding, while internships and 360-degree feedback did so to a lesser degree. Sources of learning perceived to facilitate skill building were group projects, and giving presentations. Conversely, completing case studies and listening to lectures were rated as unlikely to foster personal growth. Originality/value – The results can help educators make a more informed decision about the adoption of teaching methods for leader development. Hopefully, this practice will create standardization in undergraduate leader development that researchers have asked for and serve as a platform for recommending timetables and sources of learning that better define the what and how of leader development. Likewise, these findings benefit industry, because strong parallels to both the content and techniques used in industry and by universities exist.