Anagram solution may be considered to be a process in which an S permutes in an algorithmic fashion all letters in the anagram. However, Ss may find it possible to "rule out" certain permutations because attempting these permutations is highly unlikely to yield an English word. 20 adult Ss were presented with 20 S-letter anagrams in a 20 X 20 Latin square. Ss were randomly assigned to sequences. The anagrams were chosen from 2 levels of frequency on the basis of the Thorndike-Lorge (1944) count. At each frequency level S of the words were "high" ruleout, i.e., permitted elimination of 90-94 of the possible 120 permutations and S were "low" ruleout, permitting elimination of 70-76 of the permutations. Anagrams with "high" ruleout totals were solved significantly more rapidly (p < .01) at both frequency levels.

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An elaboration hypothesis was examined as a means of specifying "depth of . processing" in memory for prose and as a guide for the construction of adjunct questions. Experiment 1 examined the effects of different numbers of propositions within paragraphs on the recall of major ideas. Experiment 2 replicated the procedures of Experiment 1 but varied the topography of the text. Experiment 3 examined processing time as an alternative explanation for the results observed in Experiments 1 and 2. Experiment 4 investigated a redundancy hypothesis as an alternative to an elaboration hypothesis. Experiment 5 employed a procedure originally developed to test the effects of adjunct aids requiring different levels of elaboration on recall of prose. The results of Experiments 1-4 support the elaboration hypothesis in predicting recall of main ideas in paragraphs. The results of Experiment 5 support the utility of employing an elaboration hypothesis as a heuristic for the construction of adjunct questions.

Present research in problem solving appears to be primarily concerned with problem‐solving methods and with degree of knowledge acquisition. A brief argument is advanced that this conceptualization is incomplete because of failure to consider individual differences among problem solvers (other than in problem‐solving methods and extent of knowledge). A viable theory of problem‐solving instruction must take into account all three areas. Evidence for the argument is presented in the form of data on problem‐solving success in junior high school students with extreme scores on Witkin's field independence‐field dependence measure of cognitive style. Problem‐solving protocols are examined as a second source of data. Field independent students significantly out‐performed field dependent students on the problems. Examination of protocols revealed consistent performance patterns favoring field independent students.

The purpose of this article is to outline a perspective for memory research in counseling. The primary audiences were graduate students and supervisors of students planning research plus counseling researchers interested in investigating memory issues in counseling. The importance of memory processes in counseling is briefly reviewed. The authors then present a broad perspective for memory research in counseling and levels of processing, and examine a series of hypotheses that are tied into current work in counseling. The overall heuristic of levels of processing is followed by an examination of the reformulations of the position and how these may result in testable counseling hypotheses. This type of thinking should be valuable to counselor educators as they conduct their own research and help their students plan research programs. In addition, there is potential for applications of memory research to training and practice.