Contemporary public policy, supported by international arbitrators of blood policy such as the World Health Organization and the International Federation of the Red Cross, asserts that the safest blood is that donated by voluntary, non-remunerated donors from low-risk groups of the population. These policies promote anonymous donation and discourage kin-based or replacement donation. However, there is reason to question whether these policies, based largely on Western research and beliefs, are the most appropriate for ensuring an adequate safe blood supply in many other parts of the world.This research explored the various and complex meanings embedded in blood using empirical ethnographic data from Pakistan, with the intent of informing development of a national blood policy in that country. Using a focused ethnographic approach, data were collected in 26 in-depth interviews, 6 focus group discussions, 12 key informant interviews and 25 hours of observations in blood banks and maternity and surgical wards.The key finding was that notions of caste-based purity of blood, together with the belief that donors and recipients are symbolically knitted in a kin relationship, place a preference on kin-blood. The anonymity inherent in current systems of blood extraction, storage and use as embedded in contemporary policy discourse and practice was problematic as it blurred distinctions that were important within this society.The article highlights the importance—to ensuring a safe blood supply—of basing blood procurement policies on local, context-specific belief systems rather than relying on uniform, one-size-fits-all global policies. Drawing on our empirical findings and the literature, it is argued that the practice of kin-donated blood remains a feasible alternative to the global ideal of voluntary, anonymous donations. There is a need to focus on developing context-sensitive strategies for promoting blood safety, and critically revisit the assumptions underlying contemporary global blood procurement policies.

Dentists exhibit a superficial approach to delivery of smoking cessation care. It is recommended that dentists be trained in delivering effective tobacco dependence intervention, using the WHO/FDI advocacy guide for oral health professionals, modified to incorporate gender oriented culturally sensitive doctor-patient interaction. Tobacco cessation clinics should also be set up in private and public sectors to augment the dentists' participation.

Feminization of dentistry" in Pakistan is clearly visible in the gender distribution of an average dental class that boasts of 70% -80% female students. Yet after graduation, many of these women choose not to pursue their careers, resulting in a void of practicing dentists in the country, despite an exponential increase in private sector dental colleges. This phenomenological designed qualitative study aimed to investigate the reasons behind this dynamic. Fourteen in-depth interviews' and two focus groups' discussion from a rich and diverse sample of 20 purposively selected working and non-working, younger and older women dentists from the cities of Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Peshawar and Abbottabad obtained data to achieve saturation. All interviews were audio recorded with consent, transcribed verbatim, transcripts analyzed and coded into themes and sub-themes. Respondent validation and investigator triangulation ensured validity and credibility of findings. The core finding is that a support system is an essential pre-requisite facilitating a woman dentist to pursue her career; the primary driver for this support is "economic need". This core factor circuitously interlinks three peripheral themes, which are 1) traditional gender roles dominate, restricting women dentists from pursuance of career, especially if they have a strong economic base; 2) becoming a dentist enhances social capital and lucrative marriage prospects, lending to the concept of "doctor brides" which becomes a prime reason for choosing this education. Practicing the profession becomes secondary, especially when the marital union is with a well-to-do family; 3) life stage priorities with respect to motherhood is a barrier to full time career pursuance and if economic needs are met, most prioritize motherhood over profession. In conclusion, the average graduating dentist is female, from an expensive private sector dental college, affordable by the socio-economically privileged class; she often marries into an equivalent or higher SES class based on her "doctor" title. Since "economic need" is a dominant determinant of pursuance of career, a majority of women dentists opt for the luxury of choosing not to work.Recommendations include revision of policies for admission into dental colleges and retentive protocols on renewal of license to practice.

Background: It is necessary to understand the prevalence and pattern of distribution of dental caries for better planning and execution of preventive activities in the right dimension. This study provided the base line data about prevalence of dental caries in pre-school children of Bharakahu, Islamabad, and its association with brushing, sugar consumption and previous dental visits. Material and Methods: A total of 384 preschool children aged 3-5-year-old were screened from periurban area of Bharakahu, Islamabad, using type IV screening method. Data about decayed, missing and filled teeth was recorded using decayed-missing-filled teeth (DMFT) index. Socio-demographics, brushing, sugar consumption and previous dental visits were also recorded and analyzed and their association with dental caries was assessed using Chi square and Odds ratio. Results: The overall caries prevalence among the sample was 49%. The mean DMFT score with 1 SD was 2.07±3.215. There was no significant difference in caries prevalence in relation to gender of the children. The most significant association was for brushing and low DMFT. Children who brushed their teeth were 4 times more likely to have a low DMFT score of <1 than those who did not brush at all (P<0.001). Likewise, those who had visited a dentist in the past were twice more likely to have a low DMFT (P=0.003). The association of low sugar consumption and a low DMFT score was statistically insignificant (OR 1.4; P=0.878). Hence, brushing turned out to be the most significant factor in determining the caries experience for a child. Conclusions: This study provided us with the baseline data regarding the prevalence of caries in primary school going children of Bharakahu. The prevalence of unmet dental treatment needs was reflected through a high number of ‘decayed teeth’ as compared to missing and filled ones highlighting the need for restorative care in these children.