Tungsten (W) doping boosts electrochemical performance
of the lithium
titanate (LTO) anode accredited to varied fundamental features, i.e,
crystalline and electronic structures and electronic/ionic conductivities.
W6+ induces partial reduction of Ti4+ ions to
Ti3+ owing to increased conduction electrons/energy levels,
causing a reduced band gap of LTO and increased room-temperature electronic
conductivity to a maximum of 1.3 × 10–6 S cm–1 for an optimal W concentration of x ∼0.15. An improved room-temperature Li-ion conductivity/diffusivity
of 6.5 × 10–8 S cm–1/1.6
× 10–12 cm2s–1 for x ∼0.15 is owed to increased lattice
spacing on the substitution of W6+ at Ti4+ octahedral
sites. Temperature-dependent impedance over 25–300 °C
depicts increases in ionic and electronic conductivities from 10–8 to 10–4 S cm–1 and 10–8 to 10–6 S cm–1, respectively. Activation energies E
a of 0.48–0.50 eV for both undoped and doped LTOs illustrate
the same conduction mechanism of Li ions through 8a-16c-8a pathways.
Electrochemical characteristics improve in correlation to the type
of dopant, doping concentration, substitutional site of dopant, resulting
structural variations, and varying electronic/ionic conductivities
and conduction mechanisms.
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