Recent cadmium (Cd) regulation in chocolate threatens the sustainability of cacao production in Southwest America. Cadmium contamination in cacao beans has not been assessed at a country level. A nationwide survey was conducted in Ecuador to identify the spatial distribution of Cd in cacao beans, as well as soil and agronomic factors involved. Paired soil and plant samples (pods and leaves) were collected at 560 locations. Information on agronomic practices was obtained through a prepared questionnaire for farmers. Total soil Cd averaged 0.44 mg kg which is typical for young and non-polluted soils. Mean Cd concentration in peeled beans was 0.90 mg kg and 45% of samples exceeded the 0.60 mg kg threshold. Bean Cd hotspots were identified in some areas in seven provinces. Multivariate regression analysis showed that bean Cd concentrations increased with increasing total soil Cd and with decreasing soil pH, oxalate-extractable manganese (Mn) and organic carbon (OC) (R = 0.65), suggesting that Cd solubility in soil mainly affects Cd uptake. Bean Cd concentration decreased a factor of 1.4 as the age of the orchard increased from 4 to 40 years. Bean Cd concentration was inconsistently affected by genotype (CCN-51 vs. Nacional), pruning or application of fertilizers. It is concluded that the relatively larger bean Cd concentrations in Ecuador are related to the high Cd uptake capacity of the plants combined with their cultivation on young soils, instead of Cd depleted weathered soils. Mitigation strategies should consider the application of amendments to modify such soil properties to lower soil Cd availability. There is scope for genetic mitigation strategy to reduce bean Cd, but this needs to be properly investigated.

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Background and aimUnderstanding the maturation of upper limb (UL) movement characteristics in typically developing (TD) children is key to explore UL deficits in those with neurodevelopmental disorders. Three-dimensional motion analysis (3DMA) offers a reliable tool to comprehensively evaluate UL motion. However, studies thus far mainly focused on specific pre-defined parameters extracted from kinematic waveforms. Here, we investigated age-related differences in UL movement characteristics over the entire movement cycle in TD children.Participants and methodsWe assessed the non-dominant UL of 60 TD children (mean age 10y3m±3y1m) using 3DMA during eight tasks: reaching (forwards (RF), upwards (RU), sideways (RS)), reach-to-grasp (sphere (RGS), vertical cylinder (RGV)) and activities-of-daily-living mimicking tasks (hand-to-head (HTH), hand-to-mouth (HTM), hand-to-shoulder (HTS)). We investigated differences between four age-groups (5-7y, 8-10y, 11-12y, 13-15y) in: (1) spatiotemporal parameters (movement duration, peak velocity, time-to-peak velocity and trajectory straightness), and (2) 12 UL joint angles, using Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM).ResultsWe found that the 5-7y children moved with lower peak velocity and less straight trajectories compared to the 11-12y group (peak velocity: RS, HTS, p<0.01; trajectory: RU, RS, RGV, HTS, p<0.01) and the 13-15y group (peak velocity: RF, RS, RGS, RGV, HTH, HTS, p<0.01; trajectory, all tasks, p<0.01). The 5-7y children showed increased scapular protraction compared to older children (8-10y and 11-12y, HTS), as well as increased scapular medial rotation compared to the 13-15y group (RGS). During RU, the 5-7y children moved more towards the frontal plane (shoulder), unlike the 13-15y group. Lastly, the 5-7y group used less elbow flexion than older children (11-12y and 13-15y) during HTH and HTS.Discussion and conclusionIn conclusion, our results point toward a maturation in UL movement characteristics up to age 11-12y, when UL motion seemed to reach a plateau. The reference values provided in this study will help to further optimize the interpretation of UL deficits in children with neurodevelopmental disorders.

Commercially available single origin chocolates (n=139) were analysed by ICP-MS to identify the potential of elemental fingerprinting for tracing cacao origin in chocolate and to compare chocolate composition relative to trace metal limits. Cadmium (Cd) concentrations exceeded the EU limit of 0.80 mg Cd kg -1 in 16 samples, all produced with cacao from South or Central America. Six samples contained lead (Pb) concentrations > 0.10 mg kg -1 , the limit of the Codex Alimentarius for edible fats. Increasing cacao content was associated with increased element concentrations for most elements, indicating cacao as the main source of minerals and trace elements. Significant differences in elemental composition between origins (P value ≤ 0.05) were found for Ba, Cd, Mo and Sr. Classification and regression tree analysis (CART) resulted in a decision tree that could effectively classify chocolate samples by cacao origin continent (overall misclassification rate 23%) based on the concentrations of five elements (Ba, Cd, Mo, Sr and Zn). Samples of South America were classified based on their Cd concentration, indicating the geogenic origin of Cd. 1.INTRODUCTIONChocolate is made from the seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.) through an extensive post-harvest process that includes fermentation, drying and roasting. Cacao is a perennial crop grown at low altitude in tropical climates (within 20° latitude from the equator). The plant originates from Central and South America where many cacao varieties can be found, and was exported to other suitable geographical areas such as Africa in the 19 th century (Beckett, 2008).Several health benefits have been attributed to moderate cacao consumption mainly due to its high polyphenol content, which has been related to cardiovascular health (Corti et al., 2009;Hooper et al., 2012;Lee et al., 2003). However, cacao-derived products may contain potentially toxic trace elements, such as cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb).In 2014, the EU Commission approved Cd limits in chocolate that have been enforced since January 2019. These limits range from 0.10 mg Cd kg -1 dry weight in chocolates with < 30% cacao solids to 0.80 mg Cd kg -1 in cacao powder and chocolates with ≥ 50% cacao solids (European Commission, 2014). Recently, the Codex Alimentarius adopted similar limits for Cd in chocolate, ranging from 0.80 mg Cd kg -1 for chocolates that contain between 50% and 70% cacao solids to 0.90 mg Cd kg -1 for chocolates with ≥ 70% cacao solids (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2018).The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the exposure of the European population to Ni in food. This study concluded that chronic dietary exposure to Ni is of concern for the general European population and proposed a tolerable daily intake level of 2.8 µg Ni kg -1 bodyweight (EFSA CONTAM Panel, 2015). In addition, the review highlighted that cacao based products are among the main food sources with high levels of Ni, e.g. some types of chocolate (average 3.8 mg Ni kg -1 ) and cacao beans and derived prod...