We have analyzed the contamination of the three major watersheds in Middle Tennessee (Middle Cumberland River Watershed, Stones River Watershed, and Harpeth River Watershed) by trihalomethanes, such as chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. These chemicals play an important role in the development of cancer and adverse reproductive outcomes, and were found to be present above the threshold established by the Environmental Protection Agency. Certain portions of each watershed were found to be contaminated by the trihalomethanes, and deemed unhealthy. The household incomes in the major areas in the three watershed regions were also examined to determine a possible relationship with the level of water contamination. We concluded that income did not necessarily relate to water quality. Specific areas within each watershed that had lower average household incomes were found to have a higher concentration of the trihalomethanes in their drinking water, while other high-income areas were also affected by unhealthy water. However, these effects were random, and the level of contamination remained below the guidelines regulated by the State of Tennessee.

Several toxic metals, commonly present in drinking water, are believed to play important roles in the development of cancerous tumors. Although the US Safe Drinking Water Act requires drinking water to meet health standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency, violations occur regularly. In this study, we have investigated the role of the two predominant toxic heavy metals identified in the drinking water sources in Tennessee: copper and lead. We have analyzed the levels of copper and lead, as well as the total water hardness among different counties of Tennessee, with different socioeconomic backgrounds. We determined that the effects of lead and copper in drinking water were random, although counties with typically lower average household incomes typically had higher levels of the metals. The contaminant levels were found to remain below the threshold established by the Environmental Protection Agency and the State of Tennessee. Water from the Cumberland River was harder than water obtained from other rivers in Tennessee. Furthermore, the total hardness of water did not correlate with the average household income of the various counties.

Drinking water quality can be compromised by heavy metals, such as copper and lead. If consumed raw, water can pose a health burden to the general population. In this study, the roles of heavy metals and biological contaminants have been explored in determining the quality of drinking water available to consumers of various socioeconomic backgrounds in the United States. In an effort to gain an understanding of possible social disparities in drinking water, a quantitative analysis was conducted to examine whether vulnerable populations are disproportionately impacted by drinking water contaminants. Our data indicated that states with middle-average household incomes were statistically more susceptible to higher levels of lead in drinking water. The states with higher-average household incomes demonstrated lower copper levels compared to those with lower incomes, although a direct correlation was not present. No statistical significance was observed in the total coliform and turbidity levels in correlation to the average household incomes. In general, more violations in water quality were prevalent in middle-income states when compared to the states with lower-average household incomes.

Sustaining a reliable and contaminant-free drinking water is becoming an increasing challenge worldwide due to human activity, industrial waste, and agricultural overuse. Surface water is the main source of drinking water around the world. However, groundwater is also becoming increasingly popular, due to its clarity and minimal need for processing to reduce turbidity. Over the years, the demand and growth in the agricultural industry has also been the means of groundwater contamination. Due to the health burden that raw water can pose, water must be processed and purified prior to consumption. Raw water quality can be compromised by physical, chemical (heavy metals and disinfection by-products), and biological contaminants. Biological contaminants can significantly impact immunocompromised populations, while chemical contaminants can impact the growth and development of young children. Although obtaining a steady and high-quality water flow to the general population is an increasing challenge, developed countries have utilized state-of-the-art technologies and techniques to provide contaminantfree water to their citizens. This research aims to provide information about the regulatory parameters, characteristics, and sources of safe drinking water in the world as a model for future use in the developing world. In this, secondary data was used to compare and contrast drinking water quality among countries in the European Union,

Radioactive contaminants, such as radium, radon, and uranium isotopes are naturally present in drinking water, and gas and oil extraction like hydraulic fracturing can exasperate radionuclide leakage into groundwater. The concentration of radionuclide in drinking water is dependent upon the water source and the underlying lithology within the aquifers. In United States, the Environmental Protection Agency regulates the level of radioactivity in drinking water via the gross alpha test, which is conducted to measure the emitted alpha particles as a result of the radioactive elements' natural decay. Radionuclides, such as radium and uranium, are known to cause bone cancer and other forms of cancer. Communities with crippling water purification infrastructure may be at a higher risk of being exposed to radionuclides, and this is a significant environmental justice concern. The radionuclide concentrations for the metropolitan or most populated city in each state in the United States and its territories (Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands and Guam) were analyzed and correlated to the annual household income, to determine any disparities that maybe present. Lower income communities had elevated levels of radionuclides when compared to higher income communities which had lower frequency in elevated radionuclide contaminants.