Aims-We tested the effects of adolescent substance use on college attendance and completion by young adulthood in the context of the behavioral and familial risk factors that influence substance use.Design, setting and participants-Longitudinal data were collected from a community sample of children of alcoholics (248) and matched controls (206) at three adolescent assessments (μ age = 13-15) and a long-term follow-up in young adulthood (μ age = 25).Measurements-College attendance and degree completion by age 25 were self-reported in young adulthood. During adolescence, self-reports of alcohol and drug use were assessed with logtransformed quantity/frequency measures; substance use risk factors [e.g. parental monitoring, externalizing and internalizing symptoms and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual version III (DSM-III) diagnosis of parental alcoholism] were assessed by both self-and parent-report, and adolescent reading achievement was assessed using a standardized assessment of reading achievement (Wide Range Achievement Test).Findings-Using growth curve modeling, we found that mean levels and growth in adolescent substance use mark, or identify, those adolescents who are at risk for reduced odds of attending and completing college. Moreover, adolescent substance use was not merely a marker of risk, in that growth in drug use (but not alcohol use) significantly mediated the effects of parental alcoholism and early externalizing behavior on later college completion, partially explaining the effects of these risk factors on college completion. Conclusions-The current study provides evidence for both the marker and the mediator hypotheses, and identifies multiple pathways to higher educational attainment. The findings point to the importance of studying the effects of adolescent substance use in a broader developmental context of its correlated risk factors to specify more effectively the key pathways to later developmental outcomes.

IMPORTANCE Co-occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD) is common and associated with psychiatric and functional problems. Understanding whether exposure therapy is tolerable and efficacious for treating PTSD and AUD is critical to ensure that best practice treatments are available. OBJECTIVE To compare the efficacy of integrated (ie, targeting both PTSD and alcohol use) prolonged exposure (I-PE) therapy with present-centered integrated coping skills (I-CS) therapy, a more commonly available treatment, in reducing PTSD symptoms and alcohol use. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This prospective randomized clinical trial with masked assessments considered 186 veterans seeking Veterans Affairs mental health services. A total of 119 veterans with PTSD and AUD were randomized. Data were collected from February 1, 2013, to May 31, 2017, before treatment, after treatment, and at 3-and 6-month follow-ups. Intention-to-treat analyses were performed. INTERVENTIONS Veterans underwent I-PE (Concurrent Treatment of PTSD and Substance Use Disorder Using Prolonged Exposure) or I-CS (Seeking Safety) therapy. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES A priori planned outcomes were PTSD symptoms (Clinician Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5) and percentage of heavy drinking days (Timeline Follow-Back) before treatment, after treatment, and at 3-and 6-month follow-ups. RESULTS A total of 119 veterans (mean [SD] age, 41.6 [12.6] years; 107 [89.9%] male) were randomized. Linear mixture models found that PTSD symptoms decreased in both conditions, with a significantly greater decrease for I-PE treatment compared with I-CS treatment (treatment × time interaction, −2.83; F 3,233.1 = 4.92; Cohen d = 0.41; P = .002). The percentage of heavy drinking days improved in both conditions but was not statistically different between I-PE and I-CS treatment (treatment × time interaction, 1.8%; F 3,209.9 = 0.18; Cohen d = 0.04; P = .91). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE The I-PE arm had a greater reduction in PTSD symptoms than the I-CS arm and comparable drinking decreases. The study provides evidence that exposure therapy is more efficacious in treating PTSD than a more commonly available integrated treatment without exposure for comorbid PTSD and AUD.

Background The low level of response (LR) or sensitivity to alcohol is genetically influenced and predicts heavy drinking and alcohol problems. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies using cognitive tasks suggest that subjects with a low LR process cognitive information differently after placebo and alcohol than those with a high LR, but no studies have evaluated if similar LR group differences are seen during an emotional processing task. Methods fMRI data were gathered from 116 non-alcoholic subjects (60 women) following oral placebo or ~0.7 ml/kg of ethanol while performing a modified emotional faces processing task. These included 58 low- and high-LR pairs matched on demography and aspects of substance use. Results Blood alcohol levels and task performance were similar across LR groups, but low LR subjects consumed ~ 0.8 drinks more per occasion. Thirteen brain regions (mostly the middle and inferior frontal gyri, cingulate, and insula) showed significant LR group or LR by placebo/alcohol condition interactions for emotional (mostly happy) faces relative to non-face trials. Low LR subjects generally showed decreasing BOLD response contrasts across placebo to alcohol, while high LR showed increasing contrasts from placebo to alcohol, even after controlling for drinking quantities and alcohol-related changes in cerebral blood flow. Conclusions Thus, LR group fMRI differences are as prominent during an emotional face task as during cognitive paradigms. Low LR individuals processed both types of information in a manner that might contribute to an impaired ability to recognize modest levels of alcohol intoxication in a range of life situations.