Cells employ a variety of linear motors, such as myosin, kinesin and RNA polymerase, which move along and exert force on a filamentous structure. But only one rotary motor has been investigated in detail, the bacterial flagellum (a complex of about 100 protein molecules). We now show that a single molecule of F1-ATPase acts as a rotary motor, the smallest known, by direct observation of its motion. A central rotor of radius approximately 1 nm, formed by its gamma-subunit, turns in a stator barrel of radius approximately 5nm formed by three alpha- and three beta-subunits. F1-ATPase, together with the membrane-embedded proton-conducting unit F0, forms the H+-ATP synthase that reversibly couples transmembrane proton flow to ATP synthesis/hydrolysis in respiring and photosynthetic cells. It has been suggested that the gamma-subunit of F1-ATPase rotates within the alphabeta-hexamer, a conjecture supported by structural, biochemical and spectroscopic studies. We attached a fluorescent actin filament to the gamma-subunit as a marker, which enabled us to observe this motion directly. In the presence of ATP, the filament rotated for more than 100 revolutions in an anticlockwise direction when viewed from the 'membrane' side. The rotary torque produced reached more than 40 pN nm(-1) under high load.

The enzyme F1-ATPase has been shown to be a rotary motor in which the central gamma-subunit rotates inside the cylinder made of alpha3beta3 subunits. At low ATP concentrations, the motor rotates in discrete 120 degrees steps, consistent with sequential ATP hydrolysis on the three beta-subunits. The mechanism of stepping is unknown. Here we show by high-speed imaging that the 120 degrees step consists of roughly 90 degrees and 30 degrees substeps, each taking only a fraction of a millisecond. ATP binding drives the 90 degrees substep, and the 30 degrees substep is probably driven by release of a hydrolysis product. The two substeps are separated by two reactions of about 1 ms, which together occupy most of the ATP hydrolysis cycle. This scheme probably applies to rotation at full speed ( approximately 130 revolutions per second at saturating ATP) down to occasional stepping at nanomolar ATP concentrations, and supports the binding-change model for ATP synthesis by reverse rotation of F1-ATPase.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic strength occurs during learning and can last for long periods, making it a probable mechanism for memory storage. LTP induction results in calcium entry, which activates calcium–calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). CaMKII subsequently translocates to the synapse, where it binds to the NMDA-type glutamate receptors and produces potentiation by phosphorylating principal and auxiliary subunits of AMPA-type glutamate receptors. These processes all are localized to stimulated spines and account for the synapse specificity of LTP. In the later stages of LTP, CaMKII has a structural role in enlarging and strengthening the synapse.

Ca2+ / Calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) plays a central role in long-term potentiation (LTP), which underlies some forms of learning and memory. Here we monitored the spatiotemporal dynamics of CaMKII activation in individual dendritic spines during LTP using 2-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy in combination with 2-photon glutamate uncaging. Induction of LTP and associated spine enlargement in single spines triggered transient (∼ 1 min) CaMKII activation restricted to the stimulated spines. CaMKII in spines was specifically activated by NMDA receptors and L-type voltage sensitive calcium channels, presumably via nanodomain Ca2+ near the channels, in response to glutamate uncaging and depolarization, respectively. The high degree of compartmentalization and channel specificity of CaMKII signalling allow stimuli-specific spatiotemporal patterns of CaMKII signalling and may be important for synapse-specificity of synaptic plasticity.