Head injury is common, sometimes requires intensive care unit admission, and is associated with significant mortality and morbidity. A gap still remains in the understanding of the molecular mechanism of this condition. This review is aimed at providing a general overview of the molecular mechanisms involved in traumatic brain injury to a busy clinician. It will encompass the pathophysiology in traumatic brain injury including apoptosis, the role of molecules and genes, and a brief mention of possible pharmacological therapies.

Branched thoracic aortic aneurysm repair requires arterial access from above the diaphragm in order to insert the visceral branches. This is routinely performed from the subclavian, axillary or carotid arteries and less commonly direct thoracic aorta puncture. The left ventricular apex is an alternative access route which is commonly used for percutaneous aortic valve replacement and rarely used for EVAR, FEVAR and TEVAR access. Here we describe two patients for which the left ventricular apex was the most suitable available access to the visceral branches during a branched thoracic aortic aneurysm repair. This access should be considered as an alternative approach if conventional arterial access is not available.

The activation areas seen could indicate increased stress when answering clinical questions compared with general non-clinical questions, and in the online group when answering action-based clinical questions. These findings suggest simulation training attenuates neural responses related to stress when making clinical decisions.

The 'can't intubate, can't ventilate' scenario is a nightmare for all clinicians who manage airways. Cricothyroidotomy is one of several emergency airway management techniques. Cricothyroidotomy is a short-term solution which provides oxygenation, not ventilation, and is not a definitive airway. Although there are tests which can help predict whether an intubation will be difficult, they are not always good predictors. As the can't intubate, can't ventilate scenario is rare, cricothyroidotomy is an unfamiliar procedure to many. In this situation, expert help must be called for early on. In the meantime, it is vital that all other simple airway manoeuvres have been attempted, such as good positioning of the patient with head tilt and chin lift, and use of airway adjuncts like the oral (Guedel) airway or nasopharyngeal airway, and the laryngeal mask airway. However, if attempts to secure the airway are unsuccessful, there may be no other option than to perform a cricothyroidotomy. It is a difficult decision to make, but with increasing hypoxia, it is essential that one oxygenates the patient. Cricothyroidotomy provides an opening in the pace between the anterior inferior border of the thyroid cartilage and the anterior superior border of the cricoid cartilage, allowing access to the airway below the glottis. The anatomical considerations are important when performing this procedure (Ellis, 2009), and there are other scenarios when it is used. It is not without consequence, as with any procedure.