No abstract

Double network (DN) hydrogels have been recognized as new tough materials for several industries due to their precise structural platforms and significant properties. However, a comprehensive understanding of microstructural changes of DN hydrogels under large deformations is required to extend their applications. In this work, we use the large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS) technique to study the nonlinear response of a thermoresponsive κ-carrageenan/polyacrylamide DN system and its nanocomposite containing graphene oxide (GO) in comparison to its single network components. The results show a combination of strain stiffening and shear thickening nonlinear responses. The elastic intracycle strain stiffening was mainly attributed to the shear-induced increase in the elasticity of network chains and non-Gaussian stretching of individual chains. In addition, the orientation of the κ-carrageenan double helix segments and their enhancing effect on molecular orientation could be proposed as another possible mechanism of strain stiffening. The viscous intracycle shear thickening is also interpreted by two mechanisms of shear-induced temporary structure formation and reformation of dissociated physical interactions. It is also found that the GO nanosheets could contribute to the viscoelastic response by increasing the molecular interactions and, thus, amplification of energy dissipation. Furthermore, temperature dependency of the DN hydrogel owing to the conformational changes of the κ-carrageenan network at sufficiently high temperatures is used to investigate the effect of temperature on nonlinear behaviors. Increasing the temperature is found to have a significant decreasing effect on viscous nonlinearity, while its effect on the elastic nonlinearity was strongly dependent on the strain amplitude. This study provides a better understanding of the correlation between the microstructure and viscoelastic properties for designing tough hydrogels.