Plant resistance proteins detect the presence of specific pathogen effectors and initiate effector-triggered immunity. Few immune regulators downstream of resistance proteins have been identified, none of which are known virulence targets of effectors. We show that Arabidopsis ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY1 (EDS1), a positive regulator of basal resistance and of effector-triggered immunity specifically mediated by Toll-interleukin-1 receptor-nucleotide binding-leucine-rich repeat (TIR-NB-LRR) resistance proteins, forms protein complexes with the TIR-NB-LRR disease resistance proteins RPS4 and RPS6 and with the negative immune regulator SRFR1 at a cytoplasmic membrane. Further, the cognate bacterial effectors AvrRps4 and HopA1 disrupt these EDS1 complexes. Tight association of EDS1 with TIR-NB-LRR-mediated immunity may therefore derive mainly from being guarded by TIR-NB-LRR proteins, and activation of this branch of effector-triggered immunity may directly connect to the basal resistance signaling pathway via EDS1.

Successful transformation of plants by Agrobacterium tumefaciens requires that the bacterial T-complex actively escorts T-DNA into the host's nucleus. VirD2 and VirE2 are virulence proteins on the T-complex that have plant-functional nuclear localization signal sequences that may recruit importin a proteins of the plant for nuclear import. In this study, we evaluated the involvement of seven of the nine members of the Arabidopsis thaliana importin a family in Agrobacterium transformation. Yeast two-hybrid, plant bimolecular fluorescence complementation, and in vitro protein-protein interaction assays demonstrated that all tested Arabidopsis importin a members can interact with VirD2 and VirE2. However, only disruption of the importin IMPa-4 inhibited transformation and produced the rat (resistant to Agrobacterium transformation) phenotype. Overexpression of six importin a members, including IMPa-4, rescued the rat phenotype in the impa-4 mutant background. Roots of wild-type and impa-4 Arabidopsis plants expressing yellow fluorescent protein-VirD2 displayed nuclear localization of the fusion protein, indicating that nuclear import of VirD2 is not affected in the impa-4 mutant. Somewhat surprisingly, VirE2-yellow fluorescent protein mainly localized to the cytoplasm of both wild-type and impa-4 Arabidopsis cells and to the cytoplasm of wild-type tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cells. However, bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays indicated that VirE2 could localize to the nucleus when IMPa-4, but not when IMPa-1, was overexpressed.

2R1 (P.M.)RNA-silencing mechanisms control many aspects of gene regulation including the detection and degradation of viral RNA through the action of, among others, Dicer-like and Argonaute (AGO) proteins. However, the extent to which RNA silencing restricts virus host range has been difficult to separate from other factors that can affect virus-plant compatibility. Here we show that Potato virus X (PVX) can infect Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), which is normally a nonhost for PVX, if coinfected with a second virus, Pepper ringspot virus. Here we show that the pepper ringspot virus 12K protein functions as a suppressor of silencing that appears to enable PVX to infect Arabidopsis. We also show that PVX is able to infect Arabidopsis Dicer-like mutants, indicating that RNA silencing is responsible for Arabidopsis nonhost resistance to PVX. Furthermore, we find that restriction of PVX on Arabidopsis also depends on AGO2, suggesting that this AGO protein has evolved to specialize in antiviral defenses.