Ethnic people of the Himalayan regions of India, Nepal, Bhutan and China consume a variety of indigenous fermented milk products made from cows milk as well as yaks milk. These lesser-known ethnic fermented foods are dahi, mohi, chhurpi, somar, philu and shyow. The population of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) ranged from 10(7) to 10(8) cfu/g in these Himalayan milk products. A total of 128 isolates of LAB were isolated from 58 samples of ethnic fermented milk products collected from different places of India, Nepal and Bhutan. Based on phenotypic characterization including API sugar test, the dominant lactic acid bacteria were identified as Lactobacillus bifermentans, Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. pseudoplantarum, Lactobacillus kefir, Lactobacillus hilgardii, Lactobacillus alimentarius, Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris and Enterococcus faecium. LAB produced a wide spectrum of enzymes and showed high galactosidase, leucine-arylamidase and phosphatase activities. They showed antagonistic properties against selected Gram-negative bacteria. None of the strains produced bacteriocin and biogenic amines under the test conditions used. Most strains of LAB coagulated skim milk with a moderate drop in pH. Some strains of LAB showed a high degree of hydrophobicity, suggesting these strains may have useful adhesive potential. This paper is the first report on functional lactic acid bacterial composition in some lesser-known ethnic fermented milk products of the Himalayas.

Hamei and Marcha are mixed dough inocula used as starters for preparation of various indigenous alcoholic beverages in Manipur and Sikkim in India, respectively. These starters are traditionally prepared from rice with wild herbs and spices. Samples of Hamei and Marcha, collected from Manipur and Sikkim, respectively, were analysed for lactic acid bacterial composition. The population of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) was 6.9 and 7.1 Log cfu/g in Hamei and Marcha, respectively. On the basis of phenotypic and genotypic characters, LAB strains isolated from Hamei and Marcha were identifi ed as fi Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus brevis. Technological properties of LAB such as antimicrobial properties, effect on acidifi cation, ability to produce biogenic amines fi and ethanol, degree of hydrophobicity and enzymatic activities were also performed. Pediococcus pentosaceus HS: B1, isolated from Hamei, was found to produce bacteriocin. None of the strains produced biogenic amines. LAB strains showed a strong acidifying ability and they also produced a wide spectrum of enzymes.

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Understanding the pattern of biodiversity along environmental gradients helps in identifying diversity hotspot areas that can be prioritized for conservation. While the elevational distribution of several taxa has been studied, responses of the subgroups within a taxon to elevation and its associated factors are not properly understood. Here we study species richness and butterfly density along an elevation gradient in Sikkim, Eastern Himalaya, India and explore the underlying causes of the patterns. We sampled butterflies using a fixed-width point count method in 16 elevational bands (150-200 m intervals), between a range of 300 and 3300 m a.s.l. We categorized butterflies into various subgroups based on family, range size, biogeographic affinity, and host-plant specialization. We recorded 3603 individuals and 253 species of butterflies after the completion of 1860 point counts. Overall, species richness in the majority of the subgroups (except for Riodinidae and Palearctic species) declines with elevation, as does the density of almost all the subgroups. From a selection of environmental factors, annual actual evapotranspiration has the strongest effect on the species richness pattern of butterflies as well as on the density of the overall butterfly community, especially the Lycaenidae family. The richness and density of butterfly groups display varied responses to the richness and density of trees and shrubs. The conducive climatic conditions and diverse habitats in the lower valleys of the Eastern Himalaya support a high diversity of butterflies (with majority of small range species) and thus warrants conservation attention. Highlights • The distribution of biodiversity along mountain elevational gradients has been well studied, but the disparity in patterns between various organisms and associated factors makes it difficult to develop a universal model for explaining the variation of biodiversity. • We report elevational patterns of species richness and density of butterflies in the Eastern Himalaya, both at whole group and subgroup levels. • A general decline in species richness and density with elevation is not supported for Riodinidae and for Palearctic species. • A measure of water energy balance, annual actual evapotranspiration, is the best correlated variable with species richness trends in butterflies. • Our paper highlights the importance of low elevation forests for butterfly diversity in the Eastern Himalaya.

Understanding wild biodiversity of agroecosystems and other human dominated landscapes are crucial for the management and conservation of biological resources.  Here, we studied the diversity, abundance, similarity and functionality of butterflies in different human modified ecosystems in southern Sikkim, the Eastern Himalaya.  The study was conducted from January 2015 to May 2015 by covering three habitat types namely, farm-based agroforestry, large cardamom-based agroforestry and adjacent natural forest ecosystem.  We followed point count method along the transect to collect data on butterflies in the study area.  A total of 911 individual butterflies representing six families and 44 species were recorded during the present study in southern Sikkim.  Species richness and abundances of butterflies were significantly different among the systems.  While diversity and abundance were higher in forest patches, each system harbored unique species assemblages with low similarity between habitats.  The information on larval host plants were available for 41 butterfly species which depended on 128 plant species belonging to 27 families.  The butterfly community was dominated by oligophagous II (19 species) followed by polyphagous (11 species), monophagous (8 species) and oligophagous I (3 species). Similarly, generalist feeders had higher species and abundance compared to specialist feeders. Specialist species were confined to forest habitat, whereas generalist species were mostly restricted to cultivated systems.  The findings of the study highlighted the need for conservation of traditionally managed agroecosystems in order to conserve butterflies and other associated biodiversity.