Extreme events such as floods present major challenges for water governance in many parts of the world. Following two rounds of disastrous floods in 2010 and 2011, the need for a change in Pakistan's approach to dealing with floods has been highlighted in the literature. However, scant attention has been given to the nature of an alternative framework and the mechanism for driving a change towards it. This research aims to provide a better understanding of how Pakistan can cope with future flood challenges by examining the role of learning processes in facilitating a change towards an adaptive governance framework that is considered useful for dealing with complex issues in an uncertain environment. Key informant interviews and document analysis are used to examine characteristics of the current regime, analyse the influence of learning processes on flood governance dynamics, and identify barriers and bridges to change. Study findings show that state actors continue to dominate flood governance. However, the actor network in emergency flood management has broadened, with increasing participation by non-state actors. Single-loop learning, limited to routine improvements, is predominant among state actors in preventive management. A few state and non-state actors in emergency management exhibit double-loop learning reflected by their reframing of problems and incorporation of new information. However, in the absence of any triple-loop learning associated with a paradigm change, the overall impact of learning processes in facilitating a transition towards more adaptive approaches to flood governance has been limited. ConclusionsThis research helps to highlight shortcomings in Pakistan's current flood governance system and suggest ways for addressing governance challenges to deal more effectively with future floods. Study findings show that single-loop 435 Pakistan's Flood Challenges

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Degradation rates of light and heavy oil in permeable carbonate sands from the Gulf of Aqaba were investigated to evaluate the ability of sediments to degrade oil compounds. Silicate sands that are less permeable and different properties from carbonate sands were used for comparison. Estimates of oil degradation rates were based on oxygen consumption rates, calculated by incubating natural carbonate sands with oil. The degradation rates of light oil were twofold higher than those of heavy oil, which may be attributed to the presence of a higher carbon number in heavy oil compared with light oil. Degradation rates of light oil in carbonate sands were twofold higher than in silicate sands. Oil degradation rates calculated using the bottle incubation technique were three-to fourfold higher than rates from chamber incubations, indicating the importance of adequate mixing between oil particles and sediments during degradation processes. This study suggests that permeable sands, through their chemical and physical properties, increase oil biodegradation rates by enhancing flow through sediment particles and positively impacting bioturbation processes.

An oil spill in July 2003 from the tanker Tasman Spirit attracted considerable public and media attention in Pakistan. This paper focuses on the experience of a developing country such as Pakistan in dealing with a major oil spill and its impact on bringing about change in the national regulatory framework. A major outcome has been the ratification of the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1992, which came into force in March 2006 in Pakistan. The convention provides a compensation mechanism for victims incurring oil pollution damages from maritime casualties involving oil laden ships. Several additional changes are still required to improve the country's ability to cope with marine oil spills. These include the development of a comprehensive domestic regulatory framework, implementation of an effective contingency plan, and capacity building of all relevant agencies.