This paper examines the economic integration processes among developing countries and developed nations. It looks into the possible existence of a general theory of economic integration and the reflection is carried out on three levels. The first is theoretical even normative, analyzing the concept of economic integration in various fields. The next is descriptive, which is based on the presentation of the initiatives (past and present) of economic integration. Finally, there is comparative where two main results are established. First is that the characteristics of the processes of economic integration are sufficiently flexible to reflect at the same time the processes of economic integration between developing countries and those between developed countries. Second is that economic integration is seen as a phenomenon with multiple dimensions and shapes and also as a process and the product of this process. JEL Classifications: F15, Y40, Y80

Background: Tuberculosis was the deadliest infectious agent before covid-19; 1.5 million deaths in 2020. Despite, a variety, of easy and cheap diagnostic tools, detection rates still fall below 90%; diagnosis delays are long exceeding 30 days in many continents. This study aimed to determine risk factors for pulmonary TB diagnosis delays in Mali. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Bamako to include pulmonary TB patients at treatment initiation centers. Verbal consent was obtained before the interview. Demographics, clinical, treatment cost, and patient, medical, and diagnostic delays were computed using SPSS 25.0 considering a significance level p < 0.05. Results: In total 266 patients were included, 80.8% were male, mean age was ± 12 years, primary education level was 50.4%, treatment cost before diagnosis was 100 - 200 thousand CFA in 65.4%, smokers were 42.1%, median patient, medical and total diagnostic delays were 58, 57 and 114 days respectively. Education level below university, social reasons, and non-request of health workers were identified as independent risk factors for diagnostic delay > 100 days in Mali Conclusion: Diagnostic delay is relatively very long in Mali, there is an urgent need for identification and action to shorten the delays to limit the transmission chain and avoid disabling pulmonary sequels.

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The trade war, which antagonizes today the United States and China, questions the free trade principle in international trade. To show the dangerousness of this trade war for the world economy, this paper explores the theoretical limits of the comparative advantage principle by analyzing the limitations of the applicability of the comparative costs and endowments criteria. We conclude that the international trade theories not based on the comparative advantage principle are the exception to the rule and therefore, cannot be used to justify the American positions, except to introduce a certain degree of political considerations. Specifically, we show that the international trade theories, other than the Ricardian theory and the HOS factorial theory, are exceptions to the applicability of the comparative costs and endowments criteria. In light of this argument, one should seek explanations of the war-like trade logic of the Trump Administration in the international political economy. In this perspective, international trade is no longer necessarily a positive-sum game.

Lancée officiellement le 6 octobre 2003, la négociation APE Union Européenne et Afrique de l’Ouest n’a abouti à un accord qu’en janvier 2014. Déjà conclu, déjà contesté par la société civile, partie prenante, l’accord APE UE-AO n’est pas encore signé par le Nigeria, poids lourd de la région. Sa mise en œuvre est donc menacée si l’on tient compte en plus du processus de l’intégration régionale ouest-africaine. Cet article cherche à expliquer la longue durée de la négociation APE UE-AO, mais surtout les difficultés de la mise en œuvre de l’accord auquel il a abouti. Cet article conclut à l’importance du contexte de négociation et à l’approche adoptée. Il tire également plusieurs leçons des analyses menées.