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G ender relations is a very broad term, and what it means has resulted in considerable debate. As initially introduced to sociology, the concept draws attention to the socially constructed aspects of difference between men and women that are separate from biological differences (Oakley, 1972). Thus it draws attention to the cultural ideals and stereotypes of men and women, and to what are frequently considered appropriate gender roles that reflect cultural traditions rather than biological difference.The study of farm women has long established that gender divisions in farming have cultural rather than biological foundations (Brandth, 1995;Haugen, 1998;Overbeek et al., 1998;Shortall, 1992;van der Burg, 1994;Whatmore, 1994). Similarly research on women's position in rural development initiatives has focused on cultural and traditional factors, rather than biological differences between men and women to account for differences in rates of participation (Clark, 1997;Little and Austin, 1996).This article focuses on two specific gender related changes that are linked to agricultural and rural restructuring, at least partly motivated by the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The first relates to the increase in part-time farming and women's increasing off-farm work, linked to falling farm incomes and reduced subsidies. The second relates to women's participation in rural development policy and practice. The reason for this focus is that both part-time farming and rural development initiatives can be seen as potentially enhancing gender equality. Off-farm income potentially provides women with financial independence, and places them in a position where they expect and receive more equitable sharing of household decision making power (Rogers and DeBoer, 2001). With specific regard to farm women, it has been argued that off-farm work enables women to challenge male domination and assert their independence within the farm business (O'Hara, 1998). Similarly, rural development initiatives are seen as a participatory form of development. They are understood as offering a new form of governance that is more inclusive, more representative, and more transparent. They are seen as providing scope to include women in political structures in a way that has not previously been achieved (Cornwall, 2000). It is possible then that the reform of the CAP will motivate changed social structures (part-time farming; increased rural development initiatives) that will address gender inequalities. However, it is argued in this article that ideological and cultural barriers exist, such that agricultural and rural restructuring unfold in a gendered fashion, which support the status quo. It 161 Gendered agricultural and rural restructuring is argued that within agriculture, the primacy given to this occupation within the household leads to an ideology where it continues to be seen as the main activity of the household even when it is subsidised by off-farm work. Agriculture is imbued with a strong gender ideology that will not easily ...

Based on research conducted in Northern Ireland, this article examines two aspects of rural development practice. Firstly, it examines the emphasis given to social and civic development alongside economic development. Secondly, the idea that partnerships represent increased democracy and civic participation is explored. The theoretical framework is informed by the social capital debate, with particular reference to the work of Robert Putnam. It is argued that the social capital debate clarifies the importance of economic goals vis‐à‐vis social and civic goals. It is further argued that the social capital debate gives renewed impetus to a romantic naïve view of rural communities, where civic harmony and inclusion triumphs and there is little room for power struggles, exclusionary tactics by privileged groups, or ideological conflicts. This research corroborates that the rural development process is mired by difficulties because of unrealistic expectations, inadequate specification of goals, and a lack of central government responsibility for the process. It is suggested that the problems posed by area‐based development do not represent questions for local partnerships to address, but rather ones that must be taken up by national governments.

This paper presents a rapid assessment of current and likely future impacts of the COVID-19 outbreak on rural economies given their socio-economic characteristics. Drawing principally on current evidence for the UK, as well as lessons from the 2001 Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak and the 2007/8 financial crises, it outlines the likely key demand and supply effects, paying attention to the situation for agriculture as well as discussing the implications for rural communities. A distinction is made between the effects on businesses offering goods and services for out-of-home as opposed to in-home consumption. Gendered dimensions are also noted as likely business and household strategies for coping and adaptation. The paper concludes with a brief mapping of a research agenda for studying the longer-term effects of COVID-19 on rural economies.

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