Using animals and their products to treat patients suffering from a range of health conditions has a long history and is still common in many parts of the world. We investigated such zootherapeutic uses among two tribes who inhabit different areas of NorthEast India: the Tangsa and the Wancho. Overexploitation of the animals they use, however, could endanger some species' survival and create imbalances in the ecosystem that ultimately could affect humans and animals of the region. In order to find solutions how humans and animals can continue to coexist harmoniously, it is essential to know which species and their products are sought after by the local healers. We found that the Tangsa make greater use of animals than Wancho and use predominantly a variety of mammals (47%) followed by birds (16%) of the 55 species of animals considered therapeutic by them. The Wancho informed us of using 20 species, of which birds and their products account for 37%, while mammals and insects feature in 26% and 21%, respectively. In both tribes, the remainder are distributed across different animal taxa. To treat ailments and diseases like joint, bone and muscle pains, Tangsa prefer to use the body fats of tiger, civet, hornbill, eagle and python. Wancho do not use any animal fats very often and prefer animal parts and marrow to be given to a sick person in cooked or roasted form. The bile of bears is used by both Tangsa and Wancho in that it is supposed to ameliorate pain-causing conditions such as stomach, head and toothaches and to reduce labour pains. The use of leeches to remove blood clots and the consumption of earthworms to ward off malaria has been recorded only from the Wancho, while Tangsa treat malaria sufferers with tortoise carapace extracts. The use of the flesh of roasted bat wings fed to children older than 4 years of age to stop bed-wetting seems unique to the Tangsa. Being aware of such folk medicinal traditions is important not just with regard to safeguarding the animal resource, but also in connection with the introduction of possible alternative treatment methods not involving animal zootherapies.

Cultural and ritual uses of animals beyond those for food and medicine should not be dismissed if we wish to understand the pressure that wildlife is under. We documented such uses for the Tangsa and Wancho tribals of Eastern Arunachal Pradesh (India). Group discussions with assembled members of 10 accessible villages in each of the tribal areas were carried out in 2015 and 2016. Vernacular names of culturally important species were noted and details of hunting practices were recorded. The different uses of animals and their parts during rituals and festivals and their significance in decorations and adornments, in supernatural beliefs and in connection with tribal folklore (stories) are documented. Folklore helps us understand why some species are hunted and consumed while others for no apparent reason are killed or simply ignored. Similarities as well as differences between the two tribes were recorded and possible reasons for the differences are given. The roles that the government as well as the tribal leaders play to halt or slow down the erosion and gradual disappearance of traditions that define the two cultures without losing already rare and endangered species are highlighted.

At least 65 insect species of 30 families and 9 orders, namely Orthoptera (15 species), Odonata (12), Coleoptera (11), Hymenoptera (10), Hemiptera (9), Lepidoptera (5) and one species each of Ephemeroptera, Isoptera and Mantodea find acceptance as food by Adi and Apatani tribals. Adi use overall more species than Apatani: 53 species of 24 families and 8 orders versus 49 species of 21 families and 8 orders. Odonata are highly appreciated by the Apatani whereas Adi consume more Orthopterans. Various harvesting systems exist and often methods like handpicking or using simple tools are involved with minimal environmental impact. However, depreciation of the environment, increased availability of conventional foodstuffs, rapid population growth and rising influence of westernisation collectively affect diversity, abundance and use of edible insects, leading to a decline of entomophagy among the tribal people.

Ducetia japonica and Phyllozelus sp., two tettigoniid orthopteran insect species appreciated as food by people of Arunachal Pradesh were analyzed to assess their nutritional potentials. Ducetia japonica and Phyllozelus sp. contained 56.28% and 61.57% protein, 14.99% and 7.93% fat, 11.84% and 8.30% fiber, 4.59 % and 3.01 % ash and 11.84% and 19.19% carbohydrates respectively. In both the species 18 amino acids were detected including essential amino acids and were found satisfying the recommended dosages (scores >100). Both the species contained 22.77% and 26.84% MUFAs and 18.93% and 41.73% PUFAs, respectively. The two orthopteran insects contained superior amount of micro minerals (Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn) and moderate amounts of macro minerals (Na, K, Ca and Mg). Thus, these two-orthopteran species could serve as an alternative food source and as a tasty and promising source of essential nutrients on par with or superior to conventional food of both plant and animal origin. They should be included in plans to rear and farm nutritionally valuable species of edible orthopterans.