Norepinephrine (NE) is a neuromodulator that in multiple ways regulates the activity of neuronal and non-neuronal cells. NE participates in the rapid modulation of cortical circuits and cellular energy metabolism, and on a slower time scale in neuroplasticity and inflammation. Of the multiple sources of NE in the brain, the locus coeruleus (LC) plays a major role in noradrenergic signaling. Processes from the LC primarily release NE over widespread brain regions via non-junctional varicosities. We here review the actions of NE in astrocytes, microglial cells, and neurons based on the idea that the overarching effect of signaling from the LC is to maximize brain power, which is accomplished via an orchestrated cellular response involving most, if not all cell types in CNS.

The apo-protein of Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin binds iron(II) to give a 1:1 complex, which has been characterized by electronic absorption, Mössbauer, and NMR spectroscopies, as well as X-ray crystallography and quantum-chemical computations. Despite potential competition by water and other coordinating residues, iron(II) binds tightly to the low-coordinate site. The iron(II) complex does not react with chemical redox agents to undergo oxidation or reduction. Spectroscopically-calibrated quantum-chemical computations show that the complex has high-spin iron(II) in a pseudotetrahedral coordination environment, which features interactions with side chains of two histidines and a cysteine, as well as the C=O of Gly45. In the 5A1 ground state, the dz2 orbital is doubly occupied. Mutation of Met121 to Ala leaves the metal site in a similar environment, but creates a pocket for reversible binding of small anions to the iron(II) center. Specifically, azide forms a high-spin iron(II) complex and cyanide forms a low-spin iron(II) complex.

We examined the influences of obesity and diabetes on endothelium-dependent and -independent vasodilation, inflammatory cytokines, and growth factors. We included 258 subjects, age 21–80 years in four groups matched for age and gender: 40 healthy nonobese (BMI <30 kg·m−2) nondiabetic subjects, 76 nonobese diabetic patients, 37 obese (BMI >30) nondiabetic subjects, and 105 obese (BMI >30) diabetic patients. The flow-mediated dilation (FMD, endothelium-dependent) and nitroglycerin-induced dilation (NID, endothelium-independent) in the brachial artery, the vascular reactivity at the forearm skin and serum growth factors and inflammatory cytokines were measured. FMD was reduced in the nonobese diabetic patients, obese nondiabetic controls, and obese diabetic patients (P < 0.0001). NID was different among all four groups, being highest in the obese nondiabetic subjects and lowest in the obese diabetic patients (P < 0.0001). The resting skin forearm blood flow was reduced in the obese nondiabetic subjects (P < 0.01). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was higher in the obese nondiabetic subjects (P < 0.05), tumor necrosis factor–α was higher in the obese diabetic patients (P < 0.0001) and C-reactive protein was higher in both the obese nondiabetic and diabetic subjects (P < 0.0001). Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 was elevated in the two diabetic groups and the obese nondiabetic subjects (P < 0.05). We conclude that diabetes and obesity affect equally the endothelial cell function but the smooth muscle cell function is affected only by diabetes. In addition, the above findings may be related to differences that were observed in the growth factors and inflammatory cytokines.

To better understand the role of the inward-rectifying K channel, Kir4.1 (KCNJ10), in the distal nephron, we initially studied a global Kir4.1 knock out mouse (gKO) which demonstrated the hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia seen in SeSAME/EAST syndrome and was associated with reduced Na/Cl cotransporter (NCC) expression. Lethality by ~3 wks, however, limits the usefulness of this model, so we developed a kidney specific Kir4.1 "knock down" mouse (ksKD) using a cadherin 16 promoter and Cre-loxP methodology. These mice appeared normal and survived to adulthood. Kir4.1 protein expression was decreased ~50% vs. WT mice by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence showed moderately reduced Kir4.1 staining in DCT that was minimal or absent in CNT and CCD. Under control conditions, the ksKD mice showed metabolic alkalosis and relative hypercalcemia but were normokalemic and mildly hypermagnesemic despite decreased NCC expression. In addition, the mice had a severe urinary concentrating defect associated with hypernatremia, enlarged kidneys with tubulocystic dilations and reduced aquaporin-3 expression. On K/Mg-free diet x 1 wk however, ksKD mice showed marked hypokalemia (serum K 1.5 ± 0.1 mEq/L vs. 3.0 ± 0.1 for WT) which was associated with renal K wasting (transtubular K gradient 11.4 ± 0.8 vs. 1.6 ± 0.4 in WT). Phosphorylated-NCC (pNCC) expression increased in WT but not ksKD mice on the K/Mg-free diet, suggesting that loss of NCC adaptation underlies the hypokalemia. In conclusion, even modest reduction in Kir4.1 expression results in impaired K conservation which appears to be mediated by reduced expression of activated NCC.

Cumulative data point to a key role of Ca 2+ -dependent gliotransmitter release as a modulator of neuronal networks. Here, we tested the hypothesis that astrocytes in response to agonist exposure also release lipid modulators through Ca 2+ -independent phospholipase A2 (iPLA2) activity. We found that cultured rat astrocytes in response to agonist exposure, released Arachidonic Acid (AA) and/or its derivatives, including the endogenous cannabinoid, 2arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol (2AG) and the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Surprisingly, buffering of cytosolic Ca 2+ was linked to a sharp increase in astrocytic lipid release. In addition, astrocytic release of PGE2 enhanced mEPSPs by inhibiting the opening of neuronal Kv channels in acute brain slices. This study provides the first evidence for the existence of a Ca 2+ -independent pathway for the release of PGE2 from astrocytes and furthermore demonstrates a functional role for astrocytic lipid release in the modulation of synaptic activity.