Diabetic retinopathy is characterized as basement membrane (BM) thickening, pericyte loss, endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction, microaneurysms, microvascular infarcts and neovascularization in a patient with diabetic retinopathy. Objectives: To determine the VEGF genotype and allele frequency of diabetes mellitus and diabetic retinopathy in Lahore, Pakistan. Methods: A total of 100 blood samples were taken including diabetes mellitus (50) and diabetic retinopathy patients (50). Diseased and control subjects were selected for blood sampling. Demographic and clinical characteristics was evaluated. The BMI, HbA1c and the blood pressure of both groups were also examined. The VEGF genotype and allele frequency of diabetes mellitus and diabetic retinopathy was done. The statistical analysis was done by chi-square test and SPSS to study significant differences in control and diabetic retinopathy subjects. Results: The normal estimation of DM group was 46.18 ± 1.23 years while of DR class was 52.86 ± 1.36 years. The mean value of BMI of DM group was 26.0±0.62 while of DR group was 26.57±0.70. DD genetic mutation was substantially higher in diabetic retinopathy bunch (p<0.05) relative to the II gene mutation, the huge contrasts (p<0.05) were seen in diabetic group. Conclusions: This study concluded that Vascular endothelial growth factor gene was detected in both group of diabetes. In retinopathy people with T2DM the substantial elevated VEGF DD genetic variation was seen relative to retinopathy people without diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and its complications, including nephropathy, are a significant public health concern worldwide. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a proinflammatory cytokine that plays a crucial role in the development and progression of chronic inflammatory diseases, including T2DM and diabetic nephropathy. Objective: To evaluate of TNF-α gene expression in patients with T2DM and nephropathy compared to healthy individuals. Methods: The cross-sectional study conducted on 120 individuals divided into three groups: healthy individuals, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients without diabetic nephropathy, and T2DM patients with nephropathy. RNA was extracted and TNF-α gene expression was evaluated using PCR and statistical analysis was done using SPSS software. Results: The results showed almost 4.2-fold induced expression of TNF-α in T2DM patients without nephropathy compared to the normal group. Conclusion: The study reports that in diabetic nephropathy patients, Gene expression of gene TNF-a shows increases in cases when compared with healthy subjects

Non-diabetic nephropathy (NDN) is a common complication of type 2 diabetes, leading to kidney damage and impaired kidney function. TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that has been implicated in the development of NDN. Objective: To evaluate the gene expression of TNF-α in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) without nephropathy to gain insight into the potential role of TNF-α in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy (DN). Methods: Total of 80 subjects were tested, split into two groups, including healthy patients, T2DM patients without nephropathy, and T2DM patients with nephropathy. RNA was extracted from blood samples, and RT-PCR was used to observe the impact of T2DM without nephropathy on the expression of the TNF-α gene using gene-specific primers and SYBR Green mix. Results: The results showed almost 4.4-fold induced expression of TNF-α in T2DM patients without nephropathy compared to the normal group. Conclusion: The findings may have implications for the development of new therapies and biomarkers for DN, and for a good interpretation of the complex pathophysiology of T2DM. The exact role of TNF-α in the pathogenesis of DN in humans is not fully understood, and further investigation is needed.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a major angiogenic factor and a prime regulator of endothelial cell proliferation. VEGF gene is located on chromosome 6 (6p21.3). Objectives: To determine whether deletion at -2549 position of promoter region of the VEGF gene exert influence on the development of diabetic retinopathy. Methods: Diseased and control subjects were selected for blood sampling. The blood samples (n=50) was taken from diabetic retinopathy patients and blood samples(n=50) was taken from type 2 diabetes mellitus patients as control group. After DNA extraction Polymerase Chain Reaction was performed to amplify the VEGF gene and sequencing was commercially done for molecular analysis of VEGF gene. Results: The molecular analysis confirmed that deletion at -2549 position of the promoter region of VEGF significantly greater in DR group. 2-11 % deletion was examined at -2549 position of promoter region of VEGF. The DD genotype was responsible for the development of DR. Conclusions: This study indicates that DD gene mutation and D allele is an autonomous hazard aspect for the advancement and progression of retinopathy in people with type 2 diabetes, additionally different issues for example diabetic age and family ancestry of diabetes assumes key function in the advancement of retinopathy in diabetic patients.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine involved in the immune response, inflammation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of TNF-α expression has been associated with various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and chronic inflammatory conditions. Understanding the regulation of TNF-α expression in healthy individuals can help identify potential therapeutic targets for these diseases. Objective: To evaluate of gene expression of TNF-α in healthy subjects. Methods: The cross-sectional study conducted on 40 individuals on healthy individuals. RNA was extracted and TNF-α gene expression was evaluated using PCR and statistical analysis was done using SPSS software. Results: The evaluation of TNF-α gene expression in healthy individuals has also led to the identification of potential biomarkers of disease and new therapeutic targets. Conclusion: In conclusion, the evaluation of TNF-α gene expression in healthy individuals is an important tool for identifying potential biomarkers of disease and understanding the physiological role of this cytokine.