Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) allows a noninvasive electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex by means of magnetic fields generated by a handheld coil. The powerful magnetic fields act as a vector that passes unimpeded across the skull, and then converts into an electrical field within the brain. Traditionally used in neurophysiology as a research tool, repetitive TMS (rTMS) has since been applied in a variety of psychiatric disorders-mostly major depression-as a potentially therapeutic intervention. In addition, in recent

Several lines of evidence point to the key role of neurobiological mechanisms and shared genetic background in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. For both disorders, neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative processes have been postulated to be relevant for the pathogenesis as well as dysregulation of immuno-inflammatory pathways. Inflammation is a complex biological response to harmful stimuli and it is mediated by cytokines cascades, cellular immune responses, oxidative factors and hormone regulation. Cytokines, in particular, are supposed to play a critical role in infectious and inflammatory processes, mediating the cross-talk between the brain and the immune system; they also possibly contribute to the development of the central nervous system. From this perspective, even though mixed results have been reported, it seems that both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder are associated with an imbalance in inflammatory cytokines; in fact, some of these could represent biological markers of illness and could be possible targets for pharmacological treatments. In light of these considerations, the purpose of the present paper was to provide a comprehensive and critical review of the existing literature about immunological abnormalities in bipolar disorder with particular attention to the similarities and differences with schizophrenia.

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