This study examined the identification frameworks, specific models, and assessment practices used by school psychologists to identify students with specific learning disabilities (SLD) in public schools in the United States. We surveyed school psychologist practitioners using an online survey, conducted a review of state regulations addressing SLD, and evaluated the effects of state-level policies and school psychologists' characteristics on identification practices. Responses from more than 1,300 school psychologists revealed that multiple SLD identification frameworks are utilized and that state regulations generally have stronger effects on identification practices than do characteristics such as school psychologists' age, highest degree obtained, and years of experience. Frameworks with well-known psychometric limitations, such as those employing intelligence-achievement discrepancy formulas, remain commonly employed. We encourage more and better scientific research into both the conceptual and psychometric outcomes associated with SLD identification frameworks and urge application of evidence-based practices in the assessment and treatment of academic deficits. Impact and ImplicationsThe results of this study suggest that school psychologists use multiple frameworks to identify learning disabilities, and that state regulations generally have stronger effects on identification practices than do characteristics such as school psychologists' age, highest degree obtained, and years of experience. Frameworks with well-known psychometric limitations remain commonly employed. We encourage more and better scientific research into both the conceptual and psychometric outcomes associated with these frameworks and urge application of evidence-based practices in the assessment and treatment of academic deficits.
Hundreds of thousands of children are confronted with traumatic experiences each year in the United States. As trauma‐informed care begins to take hold in schools, school mental health providers (e.g., school psychologists, counselors, and social workers) desire concrete service‐delivery options for students affected by trauma. This article provides examples from the literature via a narrative review of assessment, intervention, and practitioner support options related to childhood trauma. Specific attention is paid to framing concrete school‐based trauma service‐delivery options within a multitiered systems of support model to align with existing school practices. Given the large amount of literature on this topic, this article aims to reduce the barriers practitioners face when looking to implement trauma services in their schools by organizing example practices from the literature in a commonly used service‐delivery framework.
The purpose of this study was to identify adolescent students' preferences for praise and rewards for academic behavior through a survey adapted from existing praise preference surveys. The survey was administered to 764 adolescent students in Grades 5 through 12 in 1 northeastern school district. Students completing the survey ranked items numerically indicating their preferences for praise and reward for their schoolwork. Data across schools (middle, junior high, and high school) were analyzed to determine student perceptions of the frequency of receiving praise and rewards, preferences for types of praise from teachers and peers, preferences for social and tangible rewards, and ratings of whose opinions students value regarding their schoolwork. Findings suggest that both praise and rewards for academic behaviors are acceptable for adolescent students. Students indicated that they value teacher opinions about schoolwork more than the opinions of peers, parents, and themselves; however, the value placed on each of these differed by school. Quiet praise from teachers was ranked as most preferred; however, all forms of teachers praise were ranked highly. Gestural encouragement was the most highly preferred response from classmates for academic work. Overall, rewards were preferred slightly more than praise by adolescents in this sample. Significant differences in praise and reward preferences were found across middle, junior high, and high school students. This study serves as an important first step in understanding the acceptability of praise and rewards for adolescents, and has implication for research and practices related to secondary schools.
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