BackgroundManipulations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae classically depend on use of auxotrophy selection markers. There are several disadvantages to this in a microbial cell factory setting: (1) auxotrophies must first be engineered in prototrophic strains, and many industrial strains are polyploid/aneuploid prototrophs (2) available strain auxotrophies must be paired with available repair plasmids (3) remaining auxotrophies must be repaired prior to development of industrial bioprocesses. Use of dominant antibiotic resistance markers can circumvent these problems. However, there are relatively few yeast antibiotic resistance marker vectors available; furthermore, available vectors contain only one expression cassette, and it is often desirable to introduce more than one gene at a time.ResultsTo overcome these problems, eight new shuttle vectors have been developed. The plasmids are maintained in yeast under a 2 μm ori and in E. coli by a pUC ori. They contain two yeast expression cassettes driven by either (1) the constitutive TEF1 and PGK1 promoters, or (2) the constitutive TEF1 promoter and the inducible GAL10 or HXT7 promoters. Expression strength of these promoters over a typical production time frame in glucose/galactose medium was examined, and identified the TEF1 and HXT7 promoters as preferred promoters over long term fermentations. Selection is provided by either aphA1 (conferring resistance to G418 in yeast and kanamycin/neomycin in E. coli) or ble (conferring resistance to phleomycin in both yeast and E. coli). Selection conditions for these plasmids/antibiotics in defined media were examined, and selection considerations are reviewed. In particular, medium pH has a strong effect on both G418 and phleomycin selection.ConclusionsThese vectors allow manipulations in prototrophic yeast strains with expression of two gene cassettes per plasmid, and will be particularly useful for metabolic engineering applications. The vector set expands the (currently limited) selection of antibiotic marker plasmids available for use in yeast, and in addition makes available dual gene expression cassettes on individual plasmids using antibiotic selection. The resistance gene cassettes are flanked by loxP recognition sites to allow CreA-mediated marker removal and recycling, providing the potential for genomic integration of multiple genes. Guidelines for selection using G418 and phleomycin are provided.

Selenate reductase (SER) from Thauera selenatis is a periplasmic enzyme that has been classified as a type II molybdoenzyme. The enzyme comprises three subunits SerABC, where SerC is an unusual b-heme cytochrome. In the present work the spectropotentiometric characterization of the SerC component and the identification of redox partners to SER are reported. The mid-point redox potential of the b-heme was determined by optical titration (E m ؉ 234 ؎ 10 mV). A profile of periplasmic c-type cytochromes expressed in T. selenatis under selenate respiring conditions was undertaken. Two c-type cytochromes were purified (ϳ24 and ϳ6 kDa), and the 24-kDa protein (cytc-Ts4) was shown to donate electrons to SerABC in vitro. Protein sequence of cytc-Ts4 was obtained by N-terminal sequencing and liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry analysis, and based upon sequence similarities, was assigned as a member of cytochrome c 4 family. Redox potentiometry, combined with UV-visible spectroscopy, showed that cytc-Ts4 is a diheme cytochrome with a redox potential of ؉282 ؎ 10 mV, and both hemes are predicted to have His-Met ligation. To identify the membrane-bound electron donors to cytcTs4, growth of T. selenatis in the presence of respiratory inhibitors was monitored. The specific quinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase (QCR) inhibitors myxothiazol and antimycin A partially inhibited selenate respiration, demonstrating that some electron flux is via the QCR. Electron transfer via a QCR and a diheme cytochrome c 4 is a novel route for a member of the DMSO reductase family of molybdoenzymes.Within the DMSO reductase family of type II molybdoenzymes (1) there is a distinct clade of enzymes that are translocated to the periplasm using the twin arginine translocation (TAT) 4 pathway (2, 3) and possess a monomeric b-type heme-containing ␥-subunit (1). The enzymes within this clade function as either dehydrogenases (e.g. ethylbenzene dehydrogenase (EBDH) from Aromatoleum aromaticum (4) and dimethylsulfide dehydrogenase from Rhodovulum sulfidophilum (1, 5)) or reductases (e.g. selenate reductase from Thauera selenatis (6, 7) and chlorate reductase from Ideonella dechloratans (8, 9)) and catalyze either hydride or oxygen transfer as generalized by Reaction 1.These soluble enzymes consist of three subunits and in addition to the b-heme cytochrome (␥-subunit), they comprise an ironsulfur protein (␤-subunit) coordinating 1 ϫ [3Fe-4S] cluster and 3 ϫ [4Fe-4S] clusters, and a catalytic component (␣-subunit) that coordinates a [4Fe-4S] cluster and the active site molybdopterin guanine dinucleotide cofactor (10, 11) (Fig. 1). The reductases play a pivotal function, coupling the reduction of substrates to the generation of the proton-motive force (PMF). Identifying the route by which electrons are transferred to these reductases is vital to understanding their bioenergetics (12). How periplasmic substrate reduction can generate a PMF, which is sufficient to support growth, is of considerable interest. The use of selenate and selenite as bacterial...

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The replacement of petrochemical aromatics with bio-based molecules is a key area of current biotechnology research. To date, a small number of aromatics have been produced by recombinant bacteria in laboratory scale while industrial production still requires further strain development. While each study includes some distinct analytical methodology to quantify certain aromatics, a method that can reliably quantify a great number of aromatic products and relevant pathway intermediates is needed to accelerate strain development. In this study, we developed a robust reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography method to quantify a wide range of aromatic metabolites present in host microorganisms using the shikimate pathway, which is the major metabolic pathway for biosynthesis of aromatics. Twenty-three metabolites can be quantified precisely with the optimized method using standard HPLC equipment and UV detection, with the mobile phase used for chromatography also compatible with mass spectrometry (MS). The limit of quantification/detection is as low as 10 to 10 mol, respectively, which makes this method feasible for quantification of intracellular metabolites. This method covers most metabolic routes for aromatics biosynthesis, it is inexpensive, robust, simple, precise and sensitive, and has been demonstrated on cell extracts from S. cerevisiae genetically engineered to overproduce aromatics.

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