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The factors which contribute to children's perceptions of dominance are unclear although evidence for dominance hierarchies has been obtained through children's rankings of toughness in their classes. Three potentially influential factors were examined in the present study: who is being ranked (self or other), where the child fits in the class hierarchy (high or low rank), and what terms are used for ranking (“gets own way” or “is toughest”). Fifty-two fourth grade students ranked themselves and their classmates on “own way” and “toughness” and then defined the terms. While the children differentiated the two terms in their definitions, their rankings produced overlapping hierarchies. For both terms, boys were ranked higher than girls. Dominance rankings of self and others varied according to hierarchy position and terms used for dominance behavior. Children in both the high and low groups on the hierarchies overranked themselves on “toughness” relative to class judgments. Both high- and low-group members slightly overranked others on “toughness.” In contrast, high-group members underranked themselves while low-group members overranked themselves in judgments of “own way.” Both groups only slightly underranked others on “own way.” A multidimensional approach to the study of perceived and observed dominance in children is recommended.

We studied the verbal pretend play of 5- and 6-year-old boys and girls to delineate age and sex differences during the later preoperational period. Sixteen children with average language ability were paired by age and sex and were videotaped for three 15-min intervals. Verbal interactions were transcribed, and the pretend play was classified as object fantasy, imaginative action plans/themes, or fantasy roles. Language used for pretend play increased in proportion to all utterances with age. Older children referred to more invented objects than younger ones but primarily in the service of realistic action formats. Girls' conversations were scored as having significantly more verbal pretending than boys' and a higher proportion of it referred to play roles. There were both age and sex differences in the types of themes, toys used, and roles enacted, including more sex-typed behavior in older children. The continued increase in the proportion of pretend play to all verbal interaction with age and the characteristics of play behavior is consistent with developmental theory.

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