Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to study gender-based differences in information-processing impact on message perception, leading to women viewing the behavior of potentially toxic leaders more negatively than they are viewed by men. Design/methodology/approach – In total, 381 participants completed a series of measures of cue recognition items, collusion and conformity pertaining to a hypothetical toxic leadership scenario. Findings – Results indicated that women perceived the toxic leader more negatively than men, elaborating more on negative message connotations, while men emphasized positives. Likewise, men recorded higher scores on their tendency to collude with the toxic leader compared to women. Evidence was also found that participants were more attuned to negative messages and behavior from a leader of the same gender. Research limitations/implications – The Anglo-Celtic dominance of the sample is identified as a potential limitation. Further research exploring how not only gender, but age and cultural differences impact on how leaders are perceived is also proposed. Practical implications – From a management standpoint understanding that men and women process information differently has worth in assisting in organizations more effectively structuring their intra-organizational communications. Gender-specific communications may help to offset perceptions of negativity toward leaders. Originality/value – This study is the first to consider how gender-based information-processing differences may influence whether a leader is perceived as toxic by male and female followers. It also suggests that gender interaction effects may be critical when considering how leaders, particularly toxic leaders, are viewed by employees.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to propose a model of effective managerial leadership that incorporates the motivation of leaders to lead, their leadership behaviours and their reflective and learning ability (integrator). This model seeks to provide a more complete picture on the factors that contribute to effective leadership. Drawing on Quinn’s (1984) competing values framework and Vilkinas and Cartan’s (2001) integrated competing values framework, this study addresses the question of what motivates leaders to engage in effective leadership behaviours. Design/methodology/approach The current study examines the effects of motivation to lead (MTL), the integrator and behavioural repertoire on leadership effectiveness of 439 managers. Data were gathered in an online questionnaire using the online survey tool “Survey Monkey”. Findings Results show that the integrator (Vilkinas and Cartan, 2001) and the behavioural repertoire (Hooijberg, 1996) are significant predictors of leadership effectiveness. Affective identity and social-normative motivations to lead are strong predictors of leadership effectiveness, while non-calculative is a weaker predictor. Research limitations/implications The study is limited by the use of self-perceptions. Future research could broaden the current results by including perceptions of work colleagues. Practical implications The results have implications for human resource managers as regards selecting and developing leaders. Originality/value This study is the first to examine the ways in which the integrator, behavioural repertoire and MTL predict leadership effectiveness.

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