There is always a conflict of interest between conservation efforts and communities living near conservation areas. Buffer zones and opportunities for ecotourism are sometimes created to lessen the negative impact of the stringent rules involved in conservation which directly impacts the livelihoods of neighbouring communities. This paper examines a Nepalese community s perceptions of the Buffer Zone Community Forest (BZCF) rules, and investigates the interplay of rules, ecotourism, and human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Data were obtained from face-to-face household surveys and key informant interviews carried out in two Buffer Zone Villages in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. It was found that access to forest resources has become more restricted since ecotourism was introduced in the BZCF. Furthermore, contrary to expectations, settlements both closer to and farther from the forest are largely affected to the same extent by these restrictions. This study recommends better livelihood opportunities for disadvantaged groups in and around the BZCF, along with the development of forest policies based in reality to improve compliance with forest rules and to gain local support for conservation efforts.

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Wildlife attacks on humans pose a critical challenge to wildlife conservation. Comprehensive information about the conflict cases can be vital for effective wildlife management and conservation. In this study, we assessed the temporal and spatial patterns of wildlife attacks on humans in Chitwan National Park between January 2009 to December 2020 by using the annual reports published by the park. Our analysis revealed that out of the nine-wildlife species involved in conflicts, rhinos, elephants, tigers, sloth bears, and wild boars had significantly higher involvement in conflicts with humans. The findings showed that an average of 42 annual attacks and 10 human fatalities cases were reported annually. Of these species, rhinos exhibited the most frequent involvement in conflicts (38%), while elephants were found to be the most lethal species, causing an average of 3.75 human fatalities per year. The trend line indicated a marginal increase in wildlife attacks on humans by 3.97 per year (adjusted R2=0.36). Our study further revealed that wildlife attacks were mostly concentrated in the winter season (χ2=1.088, df=3, p<0.05), with elephant, rhino, and tiger attacks predominantly occurring in the proximity of human settlements. To evaluate the risk factors of human deaths due to wildlife attacks, we utilized logistic regression analysis and found elephant attacks were associated with the highest probability of causing human fatalities (odd ratio=15.2, p<0.05), followed by tiger attacks (odd ratio=8.41, p<0.05). The study revealed an increasing trend in attacks, predominantly occurring in winter and near human settlements. Elephants and tigers are identified as the highest risk factors for human fatalities. Understanding these patterns is crucial for effective wildlife management and conservation efforts.

The Chitwan National Park (CNP) is renowned as a premier attraction in Nepal. This study surveyed the ethnic communities and households living in the buffer zone (BZ) proximate to the CNP, where ecotourism has been strategically introduced to provide an alternative means of livelihood to the locals and to enhance biodiversity conservation. This study examined to what extent these households have economically benefited from local ecotourism activities as well as their perceptions of ecotourism. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data, surveying 145 Kumroj and Amaltari village households using a stratified random sampling technique. The findings indicated that similar ecotourism activities were taking place in both sites. We found that only certain households benefited directly, and that it was mostly the socioeconomically disadvantaged households that missed out on the livelihood opportunities provided by ecotourism. Further, it was revealed that the socio-economically disadvantaged locals still illegally extracted/sold forest products. However, such individuals also acknowledged that ecotourism has increased employment, social development, and forest conservation, and they desired to participate in ecotourism activities. This research can help policymakers better understand the gaps in their policies and restructure them to level the ecotourism playing field for all ethnic groups and economic levels (e.g., landowners versus non-landowners). This study recommends that policymakers rethink and reframe policies to protect the interests of communities living in the BZs of national parks, especially low-income households and/or locals who are disadvantaged because they do not have land or facilities to conduct ecotourism activities.

Community forests are a crucial component of farming systems and people’s livelihoods in the rural middle hills of Nepal, where the population depends upon the forest for fuelwood, fodder, and leaf litter for their daily needs. This study aims to assess the perception of community forest user groups towards their postearthquake situations by using the five forms of capital from the sustainable livelihood framework. It further analyzes whether forest user’s attitudes towards forest conservation have changed or not. In addition to household interviews with 68 earthquake-affected households and extensive visits to the study area, key informant interviews and focus group discussions were conducted. This study confirms that the community forest user groups perceived negative effects on the natural, physical, human, and financial capitals, whereas they perceived a positive effect on social capital after the earthquake. Controlled access to forest products, such as timber collection during the recovery phase, restricted their resilience, although nontimber forest products supported it. Low agricultural production because of the scarcity of water for irrigation, as well as the soil infertility because of the landslides, caused local people to shift towards nonagricultural activities for income generation. Further, out-migration for job opportunities resulted in an inflow of remittances and, thus, manpower shortages were observed. Our results show that, despite facing the postdisaster impact on their livelihoods, 92% of the respondents were found to be positive towards forest conservation. This was because of their emotional attachment to the forest and the benefits received from the forest in the past. Local institutional policies and mechanisms must be strengthened to provide communities with the knowledge, skills, and practices for effective postdisaster recovery or for upcoming disasters, as well as the benefits of promoting sustainable forest conservation.