Cathelicidins are an ancient class of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with broad spectrum bactericidal activities. In this study, we investigated the diversity and biological activity of cathelicidins of buffalo, a species known for its disease resistance. A series of new homologs of cathelicidin4 (CATHL4), which were structurally diverse in their antimicrobial domain, was identified in buffalo. AMPs of newly identified buffalo CATHL4s (buCATHL4s) displayed potent antimicrobial activity against selected Gram positive (G+) and Gram negative (G-) bacteria. These peptides were prompt to disrupt the membrane integrity of bacteria and induced specific changes such as blebing, budding, and pore like structure formation on bacterial membrane. The peptides assumed different secondary structure conformations in aqueous and membrane-mimicking environments. Simulation studies suggested that the amphipathic design of buCATHL4 was crucial for water permeation following membrane disruption. A great diversity, broad-spectrum antimicrobial action, and ability to induce an inflammatory response indicated the pleiotropic role of cathelicidins in innate immunity of buffalo. This study suggests short buffalo cathelicidin peptides with potent bactericidal properties and low cytotoxicity have potential translational applications for the development of novel antibiotics and antimicrobial peptidomimetics.

Methane is the most effective global warming greenhouse gas and methanogens are the key microbiota in methane emission. Emerging research focuses on ruminant methanogens due to their emission of methane globally; of which around 20% is from livestock. Enhanced techniques revealed the methangens diversity, adaptation in rumen, methanogenesis and their reduction strategies. Based on diet, geographical location, type of ruminant species, methanogen population shows vast diversity. Many strategies also interfere to reduce the methane emission worldwide such as dietary composition, vaccines, plant secondary metabolites, analogs and fungal secondary metabolites. This review gives a concise knowledge of methanogens' interference in methane emission and research and development techniques used for reducing methane emission.

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Trichoderma spp. are widely used as bio-fungicides in agriculture. Induction of plant defense and mycoparasitism (killing of one fungus by another) are considered to be the most important mechanisms of Trichoderma-mediated biological control. This study is based on the optimized production of Trichoderma viride. The media used for the economical production of T. viride conidia contain 5% jaggery and 0.5% baker's yeast. It is clear that the growth and sporulation of Trichoderma mycelia require different temperatures. Mycelia had significant growth at 37°C and sporulation at 24°C (low temperature). For industrial production of T. viride conidia, it is suggested that the culture should be incubated initially at 37°C until the mycelia are formed and then at 24°C to induce sporulation. Formulating Trichoderma in talc is better than doing it in oil because the spores are hydrophilic in nature. There is current understanding of the interactions of Trichoderma with plant pathogens such as Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporium, Macrophomina phasealina and Rhizoctonia solani, and it is concluded that Trichoderma has antagonistic effect against these pathogens.