An important mediator of inflammation is prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), whose levels are determined by the activity of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). Of the two isoforms of the enzyme, COX‐2 has been shown to be induced in macrophages during inflammation. Although general COX inhibitors, belonging to the class of nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, or specific COX‐2 inhibitors, called coxibs, are useful in the control of acute inflammation, adverse reactions were seen when used chronically in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis or neurodegenerative diseases. Extracellular ATP (eATP) has been reported as a damage‐associated molecular pattern signal. In this report, we show that eATP synergistically increases the levels of COX‐2 enzyme and PGE2 in LPS‐activated RAW264.7 macrophages and human monocytes. Activation of macrophages also occurred when cultured in media obtained from dying neurons that contained higher levels of ATP. We show that eATP increases the levels of COX‐2 protein, which is sustained up to 36 h poststimulation. This is in turn due to sustained levels of phosphorylated, or activated, cyclin‐dependent kinase 9 and p38 MAPK in ATP‐treated cells compared to LPS‐stimulated cells. The eATP‐dependent increase in COX‐2/PGE2 levels in LPS‐activated RAW264.7 cells could be abolished using antagonists for purinergic P2X7 ‐and P2Y6 receptors. Similarly, the increase in COX‐2/PGE2 levels in the peritoneum of LPS‐treated mice could be significantly abolished in mice that were preinjected with the nonspecific P2 receptor antagonist, suramin. P2 receptor antagonists, therefore, should be explored in our search for an ideal anti‐inflammatory candidate.

The word 'meme' was coined by Richard Dawkins in his 1976 book ``The Selfish Gene,' as an attempt to explain the way cultural information spreads. A meme acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols or practices that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, gestures, rituals or other imitable phenomena within a mimic theme. Memes started on the Internet in 1996 with the first-ever viral sensation of a baby dancing on 'cha-cha-cha' (3D dancing baby). With its growing popularity, it has become a means of influencing the mindset of people who view, follow and share these memes. Memes have a potential to focus on real-world issues which when consumed by a user influences them to share it further thus leading to its large consumption. Memes can be denoted as; 'Amplification by Simplification' which basically means they have a potential to condense a complex political fact into a powerful, brief and an effective way which engages a large audience. Hence, it is becoming a powerful tool for communication. In the following paper, we attempt to understand how Internet memes are used to communicate political issues in India. For this, the method of content analysis will be used to observe the practice of memes and its role will be scrutinised to reflect whether it is creating a new paradigm shift in the political discourse. The amount of viewership and type of comments posted will also be a way to gauge the response of the audience. Also, by understanding the relationship between political memes and the Indian audience, we will be able to study whether these memes help in changing the perception of the audience if at all. Moreover, if they do, what are the factors which help the meme becomes an easy tool to affect the audience's political perceptions.

Metropolitan cities in India are commonly faced with poverty, rapid urbanisation and in-migration that take a toll on the standard of living of households, forcing women out of their houses to seek employment. As a result, women do not find adequate time for child feeding and rearing practices making the health and nutritional status of their children precarious. Using 2005-06 National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data on eight metropolitan cities, this study examines the impact of maternal employment on the nutritional status of children born in poorer and richer sections of the cities. Using multiple logistic regression analysis, results show that maternal employment in service sector among the poorer section of cities and employment in agriculture/labour sector among the richer section are associated with higher risk of children being underweight. The research concludes that maternal employment, living in slums, low maternal education significantly affect the nutritional status of children in the richer section of the cities whereas these factors do not affect the nutrition of children in poorer section.

Considering the risk of HIV transmission from HIV-infected women to their children, the knowledge level of PTCT among them is low. Appropriate strategies to generate awareness among women with HIV need be introduced to help them make informed decisions.