␤-Defensins are small (3 to 5 kDa in size) secreted antimicrobial and antiviral proteins that are components of innate immunity. ␤-Defensins are secreted by epithelial cells, and they are expressed at high levels in several mucosae, including the mouth, where the concentration of these proteins can reach 100 g/ml. Because of these properties, we wondered whether they could be part of the defenses that lower oral transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) compared to other mucosal sites. Our data show that select ␤-defensins, especially human ␤-defensin 2 (hBD2) and hBD3, inhibit R5 and X4 HIV infection in a dose-dependent manner at doses that are compatible with or below those measured in the oral cavity. We observed that ␤-defensin treatment inhibited accumulation of early products of reverse transcription, as detected by PCR. We could not, however, detect any reproducible inhibition of env-mediated fusion, and we did not observe any modulation of HIV coreceptors following treatment with hBD1 and hBD2, in both resting and phytohemagglutinin-activated cells. Our data instead suggest that, besides a direct inactivation of HIV virions, hBD2 inhibits HIV replication in the intracellular environment. Therefore, we speculate that ␤-defensins mediate a novel antiretroviral mechanism that contributes to prevention of oral HIV transmission in the oral cavity. Immunohistochemical data on hBD2 expression in oral mucosal tissue shows that hBD2 is constitutively expressed, forming a barrier layer across the epithelium in healthy subjects, while in HIV-positive subjects levels of hBD2 expression are dramatically diminished. This may predispose HIV-positive subjects to increased incidence of oral complications associated with HIV infection.

Background: Macrophages are heterogenous phagocytic cells with an important role in the innate immunity. They are, also, significant contributors in the adaptive immune system. Macrophages are the most abundant immune cells in the lung during allergic asthma, which is the most common chronic respiratory disease of both adults and children. Macrophages activated by Th1 cells are known as M1 macrophages while those activated by IL-4 and IL-13 are called alternatively activated macrophages (AAM) or M2 cells. AAM are subdivided into four distinct subtypes (M2a, M2b, M2c and M2d), depending on the nature of inducing agent and the expressed markers. Body: IL-4 is the major effector cytokine in both alternative activation of macrophages and pathogenesis of asthma. Thus, the role of M2a macrophages in asthma is a major concern. However, this is controversial. Therefore, further studies are required to improve our knowledge about the role of IL-4-induced macrophages in allergic asthma, through precisive elucidation of the roles of specific M2a proteins in the pathogenesis of asthma. In the current review, we try to illustrate the different functions of M2a macrophages (protective and pathogenic roles) in the pathogenesis of asthma, including explanation of how different M2a proteins and markers act during the pathogenesis of allergic asthma. These include surface markers, enzymes, secreted proteins, chemokines, cytokines, signal transduction proteins and transcription factors. Conclusions: AAM is considered a double-edged sword in allergic asthma. Finally, we recommend further studies that focus on increased selective expression or suppression of protective and pathogenic M2a markers.

Cholera toxin (CT) and heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) are powerful mucosal adjuvants whose cellular targets and mechanism of action are unknown. There is emerging evidence that dendritic cells (DC) are one of the principal cell types that mediate the adjuvant effects of these toxins in vivo. Here we investigate the effects of CT and LT on the maturation of human monocyte-derived DC (MDDC) in vitro. We found that an enzymatically active A domain is necessary for both CT and LT to induce the maturation of MDDC and that this activation is strictly cyclic AMP (cAMP) dependent. ADP-ribosylation-defective derivatives of these toxins failed to induce maturation of MDDC, whereas dibutyryl-cyclic-3,5-AMP and Forskolin mimic the maturation of MDDC induced by CT and LT. In addition, an inhibitor of cAMP-dependent kinases, Rp-8-Br-cAMPs, blocked the ability of CT, LT, and Forskolin to activate MDDC. CT, LT, dibutyryl-cyclic-3,5-AMP, and Forskolin also dominantly inhibit interleukin 12 and tumor necrosis factor alpha production by MDDC in the presence of saturating concentrations of lipopolysaccharide. Taken together, these results show that the effects of CT and LT on MDDC are mediated by cAMP.Cholera toxin (CT) and heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) are AB5 enterotoxins produced by Vibrio cholerae and enteropathic Escherichia coli, the primary causative agents of cholera and traveler's diarrhea, respectively. CT and LT consist of a 27-kDa catalytic A domain anchored in a ring of five identical, 11.7-kDa B subunits (18). The B pentamers of these toxins bind to gangliosides on cell membranes (12). The B pentamer of CT (CTB) binds exclusively to GM1 gangliosides, while the B pentamer of LT (LTB) binds to other gangliosides in addition to GM1 (9). These toxins exploit the host protein retention and degradation pathways to gain access to the cytoplasm, reviewed in reference 11. In the cytosol, their A1 subunits catalyze the transfer of an ADP-ribose from NAD to stimulatory ␣-subunits of G proteins (Gs␣). After ADP-ribosylation, Gs␣ binds to adenylate cyclase and constitutively activates it, leading to a sustained increase in intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) concentration (4).CT and LT are also powerful mucosal immunogens and adjuvants, reviewed in reference 14. In mice, antibody responses to CT and bystander antigens can last up to 2 years (15, 26). CT has been shown to induce primarily Th2 responses, characterized by CD4 ϩ T cells producing interleukin 4 (IL-4), IL-5, IL-6, and IL-10 and by the production of immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1), IgA, and IgE antibodies (17,29). By contrast, LT has been reported to induce mixed Th1 and Th2 responses (24). It has been proposed that differences in the ganglioside binding specificities of their B pentamers contribute to their discordant Th1/Th2 patterns (30, 31). Although these toxins are extensively used as adjuvants in animal models, their toxicity makes them unsuitable for human use. For this reason, a number of investigators have attempted to identify nontoxic derivatives of CT and LT that retain ...