SUMMARY Infections induce pathogen-specific T cell differentiation into diverse effectors (TEff) that give rise to memory (TMem) subsets. The cell fate decisions and lineage relationships that underlie these transitions are poorly understood. Here, we found that the chemokine receptor CX3CR1 identifies three distinct CD8+ TEff and TMem subsets. Classical central (TCM) and effector memory (TEM) cells and their corresponding TEff precursors were CX3CR1− and CX3CR1high, respectively. Viral infection also induced a numerically stable CX3CR1int subset that represented ~15% of blood-borne TMem cells. CX3CR1int TMem cells underwent more frequent homeostatic divisions than other TMem subsets and not only self-renewed, but also contributed to the expanding CX3CR1− TCM pool. Both TCM and CX3CR1int cells homed to lymph nodes, but CX3CR1int cells, and not TEM cells, predominantly surveyed peripheral tissues. As CX3CR1int TMem cells present unique phenotypic, homeostatic and migratory properties, we designate this subset peripheral memory (TPM) cells and propose that TPM cells are chiefly responsible for the surveillance of non-lymphoid tissues.
SignificanceEx vivo manipulation of primary cells is critical to the success of this emerging generation of cell-based therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor T cells for the treatment of cancer and CRISPR for the correction of developmental diseases. However, the limitations of existing delivery approaches may dramatically restrict the impact of genetic engineering to study and treat disease. In this paper, we compared electroporation to a microfluidic membrane deformation technique termed “squeezing” and found that squeezed cells had dramatically fewer side effects than electroporation and gene expression profiles similar to those of unmanipulated cells. The significant differences in outcomes from the two techniques underscores the importance of understanding the impact of intracellular delivery methods on cell function for research and clinical applications.
Acute spinal cord injury (SCI) causes systemic immunosuppression and life-threatening infections, thought to result from noradrenergic overactivation and excess glucocorticoid release via hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis stimulation. Instead of consecutive hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activation, we report that acute SCI in mice induced suppression of serum norepinephrine and concomitant increase in cortisol, despite suppressed adrenocorticotropic hormone, indicating primary (adrenal) hypercortisolism. This neurogenic effect was more pronounced after high-thoracic level (Th1) SCI disconnecting adrenal gland innervation, compared with low-thoracic level (Th9) SCI. Prophylactic adrenalectomy completely prevented SCI-induced glucocorticoid excess and lymphocyte depletion but did not prevent pneumonia. When adrenalectomized mice were transplanted with denervated adrenal glands to restore physiologic glucocorticoid levels, the animals were completely protected from pneumonia. These findings identify a maladaptive sympathetic-neuroendocrine adrenal reflex mediating immunosuppression after SCI, implying that therapeutic normalization of the glucocorticoid and catecholamine imbalance in SCI patients could be a strategy to prevent detrimental infections.
Summary T cells are activated by antigen (Ag) bearing dendritic cells (DCs) in lymph nodes in 3 phases. The duration of the initial phase of transient, serial DC-T cell interactions is inversely correlated with Ag dose. The second phase, characterized by stable DC-T cell contacts, is believed to be necessary for full-fledged T cell activation. Here we have shown that this is not the case. CD8+ T cells interacting with DCs presenting low-dose, short-lived Ag did not transition to phase 2, while higher Ag dose yielded phase 2 transition. Both antigenic constellations promoted T cell proliferation and effector differentiation, but yielded different transcriptome signatures at 12h and 24h. T cells that experienced phase 2 developed long-lived memory, whereas conditions without stable contacts yielded immunological amnesia. Thus, T cells make fate decisions within hours after Ag exposure resulting in long-term memory or abortive effector responses, correlating with T cell-DCs interaction kinetics.
A combination of transcription factors, enhancers, and epigenetic marks determines the expression of the key transcription factor FoxP3 in regulatory T cells (Tregs). Adding an additional layer of complexity, the long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Flicr (Foxp3 long intergenic noncoding RNA) is a negative regulator that tunes Foxp3 expression, resulting in a subset of Tregs with twofold-to fivefoldlower levels of FoxP3 protein. The impact of Flicr is particularly marked in conditions of IL-2 deficiency, and, conversely, IL-2 represses Flicr expression. Flicr neighbors Foxp3 in mouse and human genomes, is specifically expressed in mature Tregs, and acts only in cis. It does not affect DNA methylation, but modifies chromatin accessibility in the conserved noncoding sequence 3 (CNS3)/Accessible region 5 (AR5) region of Foxp3. Like many lncRNAs, Flicr's molecular effects are subtle, but by curtailing Treg activity, Flicr markedly promotes autoimmune diabetes and, conversely, restrains antiviral responses. This mechanism of FoxP3 control may allow escape from dominant Treg control during infection or cancer, at the cost of heightened autoimmunity.autoimmunity | regulatory T cells | gene regulation | long noncoding RNA | Foxp3
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