The way people conceptualize space is an important consideration for the design of GIS, because a better match with people's thinking is expected to lc:adto~ieJ"-~~: use information systems. &nyt/Izy SJ'I«. the basis to .GIS, .haS been -charaetCrizcd in ' . me lite~as being either small-scale (from table-top to #ooF--~,sPaces)ors cale (inside-of-buUding spaces to city-size spaces). While thiSdichoi:omyo~spacei{' grounded in the view from psychology that people's perception of space' spatial cognition, and spatial behaviour an: experience-based, it is.in cont:rastto Current GIS, which enable us to interact with large-scale spaces as though theywCrc .slDa1lscale or manipulable. We analyse difFerent approaehes to eharacterizing spaces and propose a unified view in which space is based onthephysica1 .properties of manipulability, locomotion, and size of space. Within the .struetureofour framework, we distinguish six types ofspaces: manipulable object space (smal1ert he human body), 7Il11I-mAnipu/4ble ,,6jea spti&e (greatCr than 'the,human bOdy, .b~i: less than the size of a building), mvirrmmmt:4lspaa(from inside-of-'building spaces to city-size spaces). PJf'I'Pbic sp.a (state. country, and ' continC:Ju -size sl'aces),' JNl1U"'IlmK SJNI&e (spaces perceived via scanning the lan~pe).andmap~e.Such a categorization is an important pan of Naive~'phy~asct()fthcorieson hoW" people intuitivdy or spontaDcowly eonceprualiee' geographic sp~aD((_~~· r because it has implications for various theorecicalarid methodologiaI q~6iis " concerning the design and use ofspatial information tools. OfparticularcOncemit he design of effective spatial information tools that lc:adto better communication."i' •

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Abstract. Human-subjects testing based on a sound formal model is outlined as an effective way to evaluate and refine computational models of spatial relations. The cognitive response of a subject (person) to a realworld situation depends on the characteristic of the situation and the characteristics of the subject. Spatial entities can be characterized by topological relations, metric, scale (scope), kinds of phenomena (semantics), motion (time), and (for maps and displays) graphic presentation. Subjects' responses may vary according to their natural languages, their cultures, and individual characteristics such as gender, age, and handedness. Given this conceptual background, seven human-subjects testing protocols are introduced. Each test is described, and results of applications of these tests are summarized where possible. The tests are compared with their requirements, and the different aspects of human spatial cognition that they might test. Lastly, a program for applying these tests and refining the formal models based on test results is presented.

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There are opposing points of view as to what map tasks children can perform as well as understand. Some studies have indicated a low level of map skills ability in children up to 10 years old, whereas others indicate that children already possess a variety of map-use skills before the age of school entrance. This study examines the ability of preliterate children ages 4, 5, and 6 to use a map for navigation. An obstacle course was utilised which the child attempted to navigate on a predetermined path outlined on a map. It was demonstrated that all the children who participated in this study were capable of extracting the necessary information from a map to enable them to navigate a simple obstacle course.