Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most commonly inherited form of mental retardation and autism, is caused by transcriptional silencing of the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene and consequent loss of the fragile X mental retardation protein. Despite growing evidence suggesting a role of specific receptors and biochemical pathways in FXS pathogenesis, an effective therapeutic method has not been developed. Here, we report that abnormalities in FMR1 knockout (KO) mice, an animal model of FXS, are ameliorated, at least partially, at both cellular and behavioral levels, by an inhibition of the catalytic activity of p21-activated kinase (PAK), a kinase known to play a critical role in actin polymerization and dendritic spine morphogenesis. Greater spine density and elongated spines in the cortex, morphological synaptic abnormalities commonly observed in FXS, are at least partially restored by postnatal expression of a dominant negative (dn) PAK transgene in the forebrain. Likewise, the deficit in cortical longterm potentiation observed in FMR1 KO mice is fully restored by the dnPAK transgene. Several behavioral abnormalities associated with FMR1 KO mice, including those in locomotor activity, stereotypy, anxiety, and trace fear conditioning are also ameliorated, partially or fully, by the dnPAK transgene. Finally, we demonstrate a direct interaction between PAK and fragile X mental retardation protein in vitro. Overall, our results demonstrate the genetic rescue of phenotypes in a FXS mouse model and suggest that the PAK signaling pathway, including the catalytic activity of PAK, is a novel intervention site for development of an FXS and autism therapy.cortical long-term potentiation ͉ spine morphology ͉ trace fear conditioning ͉ autism F ragile X syndrome (FXS), the most commonly inherited form of mental retardation and the most common cause of autism, is caused by the loss of the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) encoded by the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene (1). Although moderate to severe mental retardation and a developmental delay are the key features of FXS, patients also display problems related to anxiety, attention deficit, hyperactivity, stereotypy, seizure, and social behavior. FMR1 knockout (KO) mice (2), which exhibit phenotypes similar to those seen in FXS in humans, have served as a useful model system for investigating how the absence of FMRP leads to the various molecular, cellular, and behavioral abnormalities observed in the disorder. Although these studies have led to valuable insights into the etiology of FXS, there has not been effective treatment of this debilitating disorder.Several key observations are strongly suggestive of a primary role of defects in dendritic spines and synaptic plasticity in the symptoms associated with FXS (3). Increased numbers of dendritic spines and an abundance of long and immature spines have been reported in FXS individuals and FMR1 KO mice (4-7). FMRP and its mRNA are found in dendrites and spines, the sites of transmission and plastic...

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IRSp53 is an adaptor protein that acts downstream of Rac and Cdc42 small GTPases and is implicated in

SUMMARY Synaptic adhesion molecules regulate diverse aspects of synapse development and plasticity. SALM3 is a PSD-95-interacting synaptic adhesion molecule known to induce presynaptic differentiation in contacting axons, but little is known about its presynaptic receptors and in vivo functions. Here, we identify an interaction between SALM3 and LAR family receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases (LAR-RPTPs) that requires the mini-exon B splice insert in LAR-RPTPs. In addition, SALM3-dependent presynaptic differentiation requires all three types of LAR-RPTPs. SALM3 mutant (Salm3−/−) mice display markedly reduced excitatory synapse number but normal synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal CA1 region. Salm3−/− mice exhibit hypoactivity in both novel and familiar environments but perform normally in learning and memory tests administered. These results suggest that SALM3 regulates excitatory synapse development and locomotion behavior.

Excessive proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and neointimal formation are critical steps in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and restenosis after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis that the activator protein-1 (AP-1) plays an important role in neointimal formation after vascular injury. A circular dumbbell AP-1 decoy oligodeoxynucleotide (CDODN) was developed as a novel therapeutic strategy for restenosis after angioplasty. This CDODN was more stable than the conventional phosphorothioate linear decoy ODN (PSODN) and maintained structural integrity on exposure to exonuclease III or serum. Transfection with AP-1 decoy ODNs strongly inhibited VSMC proliferation and migration, as well as glucose- and serum-induced expression of PCNA and cyclin A genes. Administration of AP-1 decoy ODNs in vivo using the hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ)-liposome method virtually abolished neointimal formation after balloon injury to the rat carotid artery. Compared with PSODN, CDODN was more effective in inhibiting the proliferation of VSMCs in vitro and neointimal formation in vivo. Our results collectively indicate that AP-1 activation is crucial for the mediation of VSMC proliferation in response to vascular injury. Moreover, the use of stable CDODN specific for AP-1 activity in combination with the highly effective HVJ-liposome method provides a novel potential therapeutic strategy for the prevention of restenosis after angioplasty in humans.