Problem and pathological gamblers experience high levels of other comorbid mental health disorders and screening for comorbid disorders upon entering treatment for gambling problems is recommended. Further research is required to explore the underlying causes of variability observed in the prevalence estimates.

Post-traumatic stress symptoms and PTG appear to be independent constructs, rather than opposite ends of a single dimension. This is reflected in a small relationship between these variables and different psychosocial correlates. PTSS were strongly associated with variables reflecting a general state of negative affect. Optimism, spirituality, and positive coping styles were associated with PTG. It remains unclear how they are associated with PTSS, given the lack of relevant studies. Longitudinal research is required to examine how psychosocial factors influence the relationship between PTSS and PTG.

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Objective:The aim of this paper was to systematically review and meta-analyse the prevalence of co-morbid psychiatric disorders (DSM-IV Axis I disorders) among treatment-seeking problem gamblers.Methods:A systematic search was conducted for peer-reviewed studies that provided prevalence estimates of Axis I psychiatric disorders in individuals seeking psychological or pharmacological treatment for problem gambling (including pathological gambling). Meta-analytic techniques were performed to estimate the weighted mean effect size and heterogeneity across studies.Results:Results from 36 studies identified high rates of co-morbid current (74.8%, 95% CI 36.5–93.9) and lifetime (75.5%, 95% CI 46.5–91.8) Axis I disorders. There were high rates of current mood disorders (23.1%, 95% CI 14.9–34.0), alcohol use disorders (21.2%, 95% CI 15.6–28.1), anxiety disorders (17.6%, 95% CI 10.8–27.3) and substance (non-alcohol) use disorders (7.0%, 95% CI 1.7–24.9). Specifically, the highest mean prevalence of current psychiatric disorders was for nicotine dependence (56.4%, 95% CI 35.7–75.2) and major depressive disorder (29.9%, 95% CI 20.5–41.3), with smaller estimates for alcohol abuse (18.2%, 95% CI 13.4–24.2), alcohol dependence (15.2%, 95% CI 10.2–22.0), social phobia (14.9%, 95% CI 2.0–59.8), generalised anxiety disorder (14.4%, 95% CI 3.9–40.8), panic disorder (13.7%, 95% CI 6.7–26.0), post-traumatic stress disorder (12.3%, 95% CI 3.4–35.7), cannabis use disorder (11.5%, 95% CI 4.8–25.0), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (9.3%, 95% CI 4.1–19.6), adjustment disorder (9.2%, 95% CI 4.8–17.2), bipolar disorder (8.8%, 95% CI 4.4–17.1) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (8.2%, 95% CI 3.4–18.6). There were no consistent patterns according to gambling problem severity, type of treatment facility and study jurisdiction. Although these estimates were robust to the inclusion of studies with non-representative sampling biases, they should be interpreted with caution as they were highly variable across studies.Conclusions:The findings highlight the need for gambling treatment services to undertake routine screening and assessment of psychiatric co-morbidity and provide treatment approaches that adequately manage these co-morbid disorders. Further research is required to explore the reasons for the variability observed in the prevalence estimates.

A longitudinal framework was used to examine the competing hypotheses of (a) whether family functioning predicts changes in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms or (b) whether PTSD symptoms predict changes in family functioning. Veterans (N = 311) admitted to a treatment program completed a series of questionnaires at 3 time points: at intake, from intake to completion of a treatment program, and at the 6-month follow-up. Alcohol use and general mental health symptoms were also measured at intake. A cross-lagged panel model using structural equation modeling analyses indicated that family functioning was a moderate predictor of PTSD symptoms at posttreatment and at the 6-month follow-up. PTSD was not a significant predictor of family functioning across time and alcohol use, and general mental health symptoms did not affect the overall findings. Further analyses of PTSD symptom clusters indicated that the avoidance symptom cluster was most strongly related to family functioning. Targeting family relationships for treatment may be important in the future for veterans with PTSD.