Representatives of the genus Salamandra occur in Europe, Northern Africa and the Near East. Many local variants are known but species and subspecies status of these is still a matter of dispute. We have analysed samples from locations covering the whole expansion range of Salamandra by sequence analysis of mitochondrial D-loop regions. In addition, we have calibrated the rate of divergence of the D-loop on the basis of geologically dated splits of the closely related genus Euproctus. Phylogenetic analysis of the sequences suggests that six major monophyletic groups exist (S. salamandra, S. algira, S. infraimmaculata, S. corsica, S. atra and S. lanzai) which have split between 5 and 13 million years ago (Ma). We find that each of the Salamandra species occupies a distinct geographical area, with the exception of S. salamandra. This species occurs all over Europe from Spain to Greece, suggesting that it was the only species that has recolonized Central Europe after the last glaciation. The occurrence of specific east and west European haplotypes, as well as allozyme alleles in the S. salamandra populations suggests that this recolonization has started from at least two source populations, possibly originating in the Iberian peninsula and the Balkans. Two subpopulations of S. salamandra were found that are genetically very distinct from the other populations. One lives in northern Spain (S. s. bernardezi) and one in southern Italy (S. s. gigliolii). Surprisingly, the mitochondrial lineages of these subpopulations group closer together than the remainder S. salamandra lineages. We suggest that these populations are remnants of a large homogeneous population that had colonized Central Europe in a previous interglacial period, approximately 500 000 years ago. Animals from these populations were apparently not successful in later recolonizations. Still, they have maintained their separate genetic identity in their areas, although they are not separated by geographical barriers from very closely related neighbouring populations.

Complex microbial communities inhabit vertebrate digestive systems but thorough understanding of the ecological dynamics and functions of host-associated microbiota within natural habitats is limited. We investigate the role of environmental conditions in shaping gut and skin microbiota under natural conditions by performing a field survey and reciprocal transfer experiments with salamander larvae inhabiting two distinct habitats (ponds and streams). We show that gut and skin microbiota are habitat-specific, demonstrating environmental factors mediate community structure. Reciprocal transfer reveals that gut microbiota, but not skin microbiota, responds differentially to environmental change. Stream-to-pond larvae shift their gut microbiota to that of pond-to-pond larvae, whereas pond-to-stream larvae change to a community structure distinct from both habitat controls. Predicted functions, however, match that of larvae from the destination habitats in both cases. Thus, microbial function can be matched without taxonomic coherence and gut microbiota appears to exhibit metagenomic plasticity.

Emerging fungal diseases can drive amphibian species to local extinction. During 2010–2016, we examined 1,921 urodeles in 3 European countries. Presence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans at new locations and in urodeles of different species expands the known geographic and host range of the fungus and underpins its imminent threat to biodiversity.

The monophyly of European newts of the genus Triturus within the family Salamandridae has for decades rested on presumably homologous behavioral and morphological characters. Molecular data challenge this hypothesis, but the phylogenetic position of Triturus within the Salamandridae has not yet been convincingly resolved. We addressed this issue and the temporal divergence of Triturus within the Salamandridae with novel Bayesian approaches applied to DNA sequence data from three mitochondrial genes (12S, 16S and cytb). We included 38 salamandrid species comprising all 13 recognized species of Triturus and 16 out of 17 salamandrid genera. A clade comprising all the ''Newts'' can be separated from the ''True Salamanders'' and Salamandrina clades. Within the ''Newts'' well-supported clades are: Tylototriton-Pleurodeles, the ''New World Newts'' (Notophthalmus-Taricha), and the ''Modern Eurasian Newts'' (Cynops, Pachytriton, Paramesotriton 5 together the ''Modern Asian Newts'', Calotriton, Euproctus, Neurergus and Triturus species). We found that Triturus is a non-monophyletic species assemblage, which includes four groups that are themselves monophyletic: (i) the ''Large-Bodied Triturus'' (six species), (ii) the ''Small-Bodied Triturus'' (five species), (iii) T. alpestris and (iv) T. vittatus. We estimated that the last common ancestor of Triturus existed around 64 million years ago (mya) while the root of the Salamandridae dates back to 95 mya. This was estimated using a fossil-based molecular dating approach and an explicit framework to select calibration points that least underestimated their corresponding nodes. Using the molecular phylogeny we mapped the evolution of life history and courtship traits in Triturus and found that several Triturus-specific courtship traits evolved independently. J. Exp. Zool. (Mol. Dev. Evol.) 308B:139-162, 2007. r 2006 How to cite this article: Steinfartz S, Vicario S, Arntzen JW, Caccone A. 2007. A Bayesian approach on molecules and behavior: reconsidering phylogenetic and evolutionary patterns of the salamandridae with emphasis on Triturus newts. J. Exp. Zool. (Mol. Dev. Evol.) 308B:139-162.Salamanders and newts of the family Salamandridae are at present distributed over North America and Eurasia. Despite a profound diversity in life history traits, including courtship and reproductive modes, the monophyly of the Salamandridae is strongly supported (Weisrock et al., 2005). Among the 17 extant salamandrid genera, the genus Triturus has the widest distribution and the highest number of species, since it is found throughout Europe except for northern Scandina- 308B:139-162 (2007) via and the Mediterranean islands (Fig. 1). The monophyly of Triturus was generally assumed on the basis of overall similarity in morphology and traits of courtship behavior. Triturus newts display a biphasic life style with aquatic reproduction, typically taking place in ponds and stagnant waters during spring and early summer, and a subsequent terrestrial phase until the next reproductive eve...