Human activities are altering the fundamental geography of biogeochemicals. Yet we lack an understanding of how the spatial patterns in organismal stoichiometry affect biogeochemical processes and the tools to predict the impacts of global changes on biogeochemical processes. In this contribution we develop stoichiometric distribution models (StDMs), which allow us to map spatial structure in resource elemental composition across a landscape and evaluate spatial responses of consumers. We parameterise StDMs for a consumer-resource (moose-white birch) system and demonstrate that we can develop predictive models of resource stoichiometry across a landscape and that such models could improve our predictions of consumer space use. With results from our study system application, we argue that explicit consideration of the spatial patterns in organismal elemental composition may uncover emergent individual, population, community and ecosystem properties that are not revealed at the local extents routinely used in ecological stoichiometry. We discuss perspectives for further developments and application of StDMs to advance three emerging frameworks for spatial ecosystem ecology in an era of global change; meta-ecosystem theory, macroecological stoichiometry and remotely sensed biogeochemistry. Progress on these emerging frameworks will allow for the integration of ecological stoichiometry and individual space use and fitness.

Aim: The quantification of species range shifts is critical for developing effective plans to conserve biodiversity. There are numerous methods and metrics for quantifying species range shifts, but we currently lack a comprehensive review of existing approaches used in species range shift studies. Location: Global.Time period: 2013 -2014.Major taxa studied: All taxa. Methods:We conducted a quantitative literature review to first identify the methods currently used for defining a species' range over a particular time and then to identify metrics used for measuring changes in species ranges over time. We provide a roadmap for the selection of methods and metrics for measuring species ranges and species range shifts by discussing opportunities, assumptions and constraints of the different approaches.Results: Our literature review revealed six main methods for defining species ranges: observational studies, grid-based mapping, convex hull, kriging, species distribution modelling and hybrid methods. These methods are used with three main metric classes to measure species range shifts: changes in range limit, size and the probability of species occurrences or suitability. Most methods for defining species ranges and subsequent range shifts can be applied to different spatial extents and resolutions and taxa. However, only species distribution models (SDMs) and hybrid methods allow for the exploration of the relationship between species occurrence and environmental variables, and only these methods can be used for forecasting species ranges into future environments.Likewise, the inclusion of ecological processes in range shift calculations requires researchers to use hybrid methods or mechanistic models.Main conclusions: Our review revealed a high diversity of methods and metrics used to quantify species range shifts. As these methods and metrics underlie many of the conservation strategies proposed for climate change mitigation (e.g., protection of refugia), we urge the conservation community to evaluate underlying approaches for defining species ranges and measuring species range shifts with an equal level of scrutiny as the conservation strategies that these methods and metrics enable. K E Y W O R D Sclimate change, global change, grid-based map, hybrid method, mechanistic model, meta-population model, range contraction, range expansion, SDM, species distribution Prentice, 2011). It is therefore surprising that we lack a comprehensive review of the most common methods and metrics used to define species ranges and species range shifts.Studies of ranges shifts necessarily begin by defining a species' range, followed by quantifying changes in this species' range over time. | METHODS A ND METRICS F OR ME A S U R I N G C H A N G E S I N S P E C I E S RAN GES OVE R TIME AN D S PACEThe use of time as a comparative parameter requires a reference measurement of a species' range to be defined for each period before calculating the range shift between multiple periods. We conducted a literature search to identify key...

Land-cover and climate change are two main drivers of changes in species ranges. Yet, the majority of studies investigating the impacts of global change on biodiversity focus on one global change driver and usually use simulations to project biodiversity responses to future conditions. We conduct an empirical test of the relative and combined effects of land-cover and climate change on species occurrence changes. Specifically, we examine whether observed local colonization and extinctions of North American birds between 1981-1985 and 2001-2005 are correlated with land-cover and climate change and whether bird life history and ecological traits explain interspecific variation in observed occurrence changes. We fit logistic regression models to test the impact of physical land-cover change, changes in net primary productivity, winter precipitation, mean summer temperature, and mean winter temperature on the probability of Ontario breeding bird local colonization and extinction. Models with climate change, land-cover change, and the combination of these two drivers were the top ranked models of local colonization for 30%, 27%, and 29% of species, respectively. Conversely, models with climate change, land-cover change, and the combination of these two drivers were the top ranked models of local extinction for 61%, 7%, and 9% of species, respectively. The quantitative impacts of land-cover and climate change variables also vary among bird species. We then fit linear regression models to test whether the variation in regional colonization and extinction rate could be explained by mean body mass, migratory strategy, and habitat preference of birds. Overall, species traits were weakly correlated with heterogeneity in species occurrence changes. We provide empirical evidence showing that land-cover change, climate change, and the combination of multiple global change drivers can differentially explain observed species local colonization and extinction.

No abstract