The Amazon Macrotidal Mangrove Coast contains the most extensive and continuous mangrove belt globally, occupying an area of ~6500 km2 and accounting for 4.2% of global mangroves. The tallest and densest mangrove forests in the Amazon occur on the Bragança Peninsula. However, road construction that occurred in 1973 caused significant mangrove degradation in the area. A spatial-temporal analysis (1986–2019) based on optical, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), drone images, and altimetric data obtained by photogrammetry and validated by a topographic survey were carried out to understand how the construction of a road led to the death of mangroves. The topographic data suggested that this road altered the hydrodynamical flow, damming tidal waters. This process killed at least 4.3 km2 of mangrove trees. Nevertheless, due to natural mangrove recolonization, the area exhibiting degraded mangrove health decreased to ~2.8 km2 in 2003 and ~0.73 km2 in 2019. Climatic extreme events such as “El Niño” and “La Niña” had ephemeral control over the mangrove degradation/regeneration. In contrast, the relative sea-level rise during the last several decades caused long-term mangrove recolonization, expanding mangrove areas from lower to higher tidal flats. Permanently flooded depressions in the study area, created by the altered hydrodynamical flow due to the road, are unlikely to be recolonized by mangroves unless connections are re-established between these depressions with drainage on the Caeté estuary through pipes or bridges to prevent water accumulation between the road and depressions. To minimize impacts on mangroves, this road should have initially been designed to cross mangrove areas on the highest tidal flats and to skirt the channel headwaters to avoid interruption of regular tidal flow.
Los glaciares andinos representan una de las fuentes principales del recurso hídrico en Suramérica y durante las últimas décadas se han reducido significativamente como producto del cambio climático y la variabilidad climática. En los Andes colombianos, el pico nevado más extenso corresponde a la Sierra Nevada del Cocuy (SRC), un cordón montañoso localizado al noreste de la Cordillera Oriental con presencia de nieves perpetuas en alturas que oscilan aproximadamente entre los 4800 y los 5345 metros sobre el nivel del mar (msnm). A partir de imágenes satelitales de Landsat-4 (1987), Landsat-5 (1991, 1997, 2009), Landsat-7 (2000, 2003), Landsat-8 (2014, 2016, 2017), y Sentinel-2 (2019, 2021) se realizó una clasificación orientada a píxel usando el software PCI Geomatics, en la cual se definieron 4 tipos de cobertura: área glaciar, suelo-roca, vegetación y agua. Para la validación de exactitud (accuracy) fueron utilizadas como datos de referencia, imágenes satelitales de alta resolución espacial (Google Earth ~1,0 m y Planet’s high-resolution, analysis-ready mosaics of the world’s tropics ~4,7 m) y puntos de control de campo. Los valores de exactitud global (todas las coberturas) oscilaron entre 86-99%, con una exactitud para la cobertura de área glaciar entre 97-100%. La disminución de dicha área es de 1099,59 ha en un lapso de 34 años (1987-2021). Este análisis reveló que el área glaciar disminuyó aproximadamente en un 37,92% con respecto a la primera escena (1987). Según dicha tendencia, el glaciar de la SRC se extinguiría para el año 2048. La tasa de retroceso glaciar está influenciada principalmente por factores relacionados con el calentamiento global como lo son el aumento de la temperatura media anual y la disminución en las tasas de precipitación, y factores de variabilidad climática como el fenómeno de El Niño.
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