T helper cells that produce interleukin 17 (IL-17) are associated with inflammation and the control of certain bacteria. We report here the essential involvement of the adaptor protein Act1 in IL-17 receptor (IL-17R) signaling and IL-17-dependent immune responses. After stimulation with IL-17, recruitment of Act1 to IL-17R required the IL-17R conserved cytoplasmic 'SEFIR' domain, followed by recruitment of the kinase TAK1 and E3 ubiquitin ligase TRAF6, which mediate 'downstream' activation of transcription factor NF-kappaB. IL-17-induced expression of inflammation-related genes was abolished in Act1-deficient primary astroglial and gut epithelial cells. This reduction was associated with much less inflammatory disease in vivo in both autoimmune encephalomyelitis and dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis. Our data show that Act1 is essential in IL-17-dependent signaling in autoimmune and inflammatory disease.

The anti-angiogenic drug sunitinib is a receptor tyrosine-kinase inhibitor with significant, yet not curative, therapeutic impacts in metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC). Sunitinib is also an immunomodulator, potently reversing myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) accumulation and T-cell inhibition in the blood even of non-responder RCC patients. We observed that sunitinib similarly prevented MDSC accumulation and restored normal T-cell function to spleens of tumor-bearing mice, independent of sunitinib's capacity to inhibit tumor progression (RENCA>CT26>4T1). Both monocytic and neutrophilic splenic MDSC were highly repressible by sunitinib. In contrast, MDSC within the microenvironment of 4T1 tumors or human RCC tumors proved highly resistant to sunitinib, and ambient T-cell function remained suppressed. Proteomic analyses comparing tumor to peripheral compartments demonstrated that GM-CSF predicted sunitinib resistance, and recombinant GM-CSF conferred sunitinib resistance to MDSC in vivo and in vitro. MDSC conditioning with GM-CSF uniquely inhibited STAT3 and promoted STAT5 activation, and STAT5ab(null/null) MDSC were rendered sensitive to sunitinib in the presence of GM-CSF in vitro. We conclude that compartment-dependent GM-CSF exposure in resistant tumors may account for sunitinib's regionalized impact upon host MDSC modulation, and hypothesize that ancillary strategies to decrease such regionalization will enhance sunitinib's potency as an immunomodulator and a cancer therapy.

Interleukin (IL)-17, a proinflammatory cytokine mainly produced by T-helper-17 (T H 17) lineage, is required for host defense against bacteria and fungus infection and plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Act1 is an essential adaptor molecule in IL-17-mediated signaling pathway, recruited to IL-17 receptor (IL-17R) upon IL-17 stimulation through SEFIR-SEFIR domain interaction. Here we report that Act1 is a novel bona fide U-box E3 ubiquitin ligase, whose activity is essential for IL-17-mediated signaling pathways (including nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), and partially required for Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation) and inflammatory gene expression (KC (CXCL1), granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CFS ) and IL-6) in mammalian cells. By utilizing Ubc13/Uev1A E2 complex, Act1 mediates Lys 63-linked ubiquitination of tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), an important signaling component of IL-17-mediated signaling pathway. Deletion and point mutations of the Act1 U-box abolish Act1-mediated ubiquitination of TRAF6 and impair the ability of Act1 to restore IL-17-dependent signaling and inflammatory gene expression in Act1 −/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Importantly, we demonstrate that the Lys 124 residue of TRAF6 is critical for efficient Act1-mediated TRAF6 ubiquitination and for the ability of TRAF6 to mediate IL-17-induced NFκB activation. Thus Act1 mediates IL-17-induced signaling pathways through its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity and TRAF6 is a critical substrate of Act1, indicating the importance of protein ubiquitination in IL-17-dependent inflammatory response.

Interleukin 17 (IL-17) plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Here we report that Act1, the key adaptor for IL-17R, forms a complex with IKKi upon IL-17 stimulation. Using IKKi-deficient mice, we show that IKKi was required for IL-17-induced inflammatory gene expression in primary airway epithelial cells, neutrophilia and pulmonary inflammation. IKKi deficiency abolished IL-17-induced Act1-TRAF2/5 complex formation, MAPK activation and mRNA stability, whereas the Act1-TRAF6-NFκB axis was retained. IKKi was required for IL-17-induced Act1 phosphorylation on serine 311, adjacent to a putative TRAF binding motif. S311A mutation impaired IL-17-mediated Act1-TRAF2/5 interaction and gene expression. Thus, IKKi is a novel kinase modulating IL-17 signaling through its impact on Act1 phosphorylation and consequent function.

Reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species produced by epithelial and inflammatory cells are key mediators of the chronic airway inflammation of asthma. Detection of 3-nitrotyrosine in the asthmatic lung confirms the presence of increased reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, but the lack of identification of modified proteins has hindered an understanding of the potential mechanistic contributions of nitration/oxidation to airway inflammation. In this study, we applied a proteomic approach, using nitrotyrosine as a marker, to evaluate the oxidation of proteins in the allergen-induced murine model of asthma. Over 30 different proteins were targets of nitration following allergen challenge, including the antioxidant enzyme catalase. Oxidative modification and loss of catalase enzyme function were seen in this model. Subsequent investigation of human bronchoalveolar lavage fluid revealed that catalase activity was reduced in asthma by up to 50% relative to healthy controls. Analysis of catalase isolated from asthmatic airway epithelial cells revealed increased amounts of several protein oxidation markers, including chloro- and nitrotyrosine, linking oxidative modification to the reduced activity in vivo. Parallel in vitro studies using reactive chlorinating species revealed that catalase inactivation is accompanied by the oxidation of a specific cysteine (Cys(377)). Taken together, these studies provide evidence of multiple ongoing and profound oxidative reactions in asthmatic airways, with one early downstream consequence being catalase inactivation. Loss of catalase activity likely amplifies oxidative stress, contributing to the chronic inflammatory state of the asthmatic airway.