Propolis contains polyphenolic compounds such as flavonoids and phenols that are able to demonstrate a broad spectrum of biological activities including antioxidant, antibacterial, and many more. This study was carried out to determine the total phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity of water-extracted propolis samples from three different Indo-Malayan stingless bee species, namely, Tetrigona apicalis, Tetrigona binghami, and Homotrigona fimbriata. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were evaluated using Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetric and aluminium chloride methods, respectively, while the antioxidant activity was analysed using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay. Results indicated that H. fimbriata extracts exhibit the highest TPC, TFC, and antiradical activity among all samples tested. Interestingly, the data also showed that the higher the concentration of the extract used, the higher the antioxidant activity exhibited by the samples. Statistically, there were no significant differences recorded between the different bee species’ propolis studied. In conclusion, the propolis extracts showed stronger antioxidant potential with higher TPC and TFC values. This study also noted the presence of bioactive compounds from local stingless bee propolis that could potentially be utilised for their medicinal and health benefits.

Propolis is a resinous substance collected by stingless bees containing bioactive compounds which exert various biological properties. The present study focused on the evaluation of chemical profiles produced by three Indo-Malayan stingless bee propolis extracted using water. Fresh propolis was collected from the same area and ecosystem conditions in Selangor, Malaysia, namely Tetrigona apicalis , Tetrigona binghami , and Heterotrigona fimbriata . The bioactive compounds and chemical composition of propolis extracts were then analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Results showed that propolis from the three different stingless bee species consisted of major groups such as sugar (31.4%), carboxylic acid (17.1%), terpenoid (14.3%), sugar alcohol (11.4%), hydrocarbon (5.7%), aldehyde (5.7%) amino acid (2.9%) and other constituents (11.4%). Heterotrigona fimbriata displayed the highest amount for both total phenolics (13.21 mg/mL) and flavonoids (34.53 mg/mL) compared to other propolis extracts. There is also no significant difference detected between all samples since p ≤ 0.05. In conclusion, this study shows that Malaysian stingless bee propolis contain bioactive components that have great potential to be used for their therapeutic and medicinal benefits. However, more investigations and analysis of stingless bee propolis need to be carried out in order to enhance the understanding and applications of propolis in the future.

Propolis mainly comprises of resins, waxes, essential oils, pollens, and impurities collected from various parts of plants such as leaf buds, mucilage, gums, and lattices. Stingless bees had been noted to produce higher amount of propolis than honey bees since they use propolis to build their nests, which makes them valuable and economical. However, very little is known about the properties of stingless bee propolis compared to honey bees’. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the chemical composition, biological actions, health benefits including some promising future research and directions of stingless bee propolis. Recent studies had shown that the chemical composition of propolis may vary according to factors such as bee species, seasonality, location and floral preferences. These compounds play a major role in the biological and medical efficacy exhibited by the propolis. Stingless bee propolis is also known to display potent therapeutic and biological properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal and many more that could be used to treat diseases, infections and disorders effectively. The insights provided in this review may helpfully enhance the utility of stingless bee propolis for their therapeutic and health benefits in the food, pharmacological and medicinal sectors, some which are yet to be fully discovered.

Heavy metals are major pollutants in tourist cities due to transportation and urbanization. This study aimed to assess heavy metal concentrations using transplanted lichen in tourist cities. The project was conducted in Malacca, Malaysia, using transplanted Usnea misaminensis lichen at ten sampling stations. After one month, these lichen samples were collected and heavy metal analysis was carried out in a lab using ICP-MS. Other factors, such as the number of vehicles, temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed, were also recorded. The results indicated that the heavy metal concentrations in Malacca were higher than at the control station. The ranking of heavy metal concentrations in the study areas was Fe > Zn > Mn > Pb > Cr > Cu. Furthermore, a positive correlation was also found between the number of vehicles and temperature with the heavy metal concentrations determined within the study areas, while relative humidity and wind speed showed a negative correlation with the heavy metal concentrations detected. The usage of lichens to observe and monitor the chemical compositions in the atmosphere is considered to be relevant these days because they allow for long-term data from the ecosystem to be obtained due to their long life span. This research also emphasizes the need for a better plan for Malacca. Local authorities need to re-plan and redesign Malacca to ensure that pollutants can be flushed out, the city looks greener and cooler, and more non-motor vehicles are used as public transport.