Neurodegenerative diseases are critical in the healthcare system as patients suffer from progressive diseases despite currently available drug management. Indeed, the growing ageing population will burden the country’s healthcare system and the caretakers. Thus, there is a need for new management that could stop or reverse the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Stem cells possess a remarkable regenerative potential that has long been investigated to resolve these issues. Some breakthroughs have been achieved thus far to replace the damaged brain cells; however, the procedure’s invasiveness has prompted scientists to investigate using stem-cell small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) as a non-invasive cell-free therapy to address the limitations of cell therapy. With the advancement of technology to understand the molecular changes of neurodegenerative diseases, efforts have been made to enrich stem cells’ sEVs with miRNAs to increase the therapeutic efficacy of the sEVs. In this article, the pathophysiology of various neurodegenerative diseases is highlighted. The role of miRNAs from sEVs as biomarkers and treatments is also discussed. Lastly, the applications and delivery of stem cells and their miRNA-enriched sEVs for treating neurodegenerative diseases are emphasised and reviewed.

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Cancer, also known as malignant tumour or neoplasm, is a leading cause of death worldwide. One distinct feature from normal cells is that cancerous cells often overexpress protein on the cell membrane—for instance, the overexpression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2. The expression of a specific protein on the cancerous cell surface acts as a marker that differentiates the normal cell and facilitates the recognition of cancerous cells. An emerging anticancer treatment, Antibody–Drug Conjugates (ADCs), utilises this unique feature to kill cancerous cells. ADCs consist of an antibody linked with a cytotoxic payload, mainly targeting the antigen found on cancerous cells. This design can increase the specificity in delivering the cytotoxin to the drug target, thus increasing the drug efficacy and reducing the side effect of cancer treatment due to off-target toxicities. There are tremendous quantities of clinical trials conducted to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of this magic drug in treating different types of cancers. However, only 12 ADCs have been approved by the FDA until now. This review provides the principles of ADCs and highlights the ADCs that FDA has approved. In addition, some of the ADCs that undergo clinical trials are discussed in this review. The application of computational techniques in addressing ADCs’ challenges and neoantigen-targeted cancer vaccines is also highlighted. Although ADCs have been seen as promising magic drugs in cancer treatment, the problems such as toxicity, the stability of the linker, the specificity of an antibody with antigen, and so on, remain a challenge in developing ADCs.

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treat MDRGNB infections. This finding pointed that strict antibiotic policies were required to work out the issue of emerging MDR-GNB infections.