Most studies examining cultural differences in social anxiety have found that East Asian participants report higher social anxiety than do Western Europeans, but the differences have not always been statistically significant. Effect sizes have ranged widely, and methodological differences among studies make comparisons difficult. To obtain an estimate of the overall magnitude of cultural group differences in self-reported social anxiety, we conducted a meta-analysis of previous studies comparing individuals of Asian and European heritage. We also tested whether available culturally relevant variables would explain (moderate) some of the between-study differences in cultural differences in social anxiety. The analysis included 31 studies involving 57 individual comparisons between Asian and European samples on measures of social anxiety, resulting in a weighted mean effect size of d = 0.47, 95% confidence interval [0.39, 0.54]. Effect sizes were somewhat higher in studies involving Asian-heritage participants living in Asian countries (d = 0.52) than in Western countries (d = 0.39), although the confidence intervals did overlap slightly (p = .06). Future research on the mechanisms of this difference should include more nuanced measures of acculturation as well as an exploration of anxiety-evoking contexts for these cultural groups.

A growing body of research has demonstrated that the experience of stress may spill over to impact the way in which fathers and mothers approach the parenting role, such as expressions of warmth, discipline, reasoning, and control (Leinonen, Solantaus, & Punamäki, 2003). In the present study, these spillover effects were examined in a sample of 182 Chinese immigrant families in Canada with adolescent children. Using a two-wave longitudinal design and structural equation modeling, we evaluated the hypotheses that both acculturation-related stress in the parents' lives and high parent-child relational stress within the family would predict a decrease in positive parenting over time. As expected, parents who reported higher levels of acculturation stress showed a decrease in positive parenting, suggesting that external acculturation stressors may deplete immigrant parents' emotional resources, making it more difficult to sustain positive parenting approaches. Interestingly, stress from within the parent-child relationship did not have the same effect. Parents who reported more intense conflicts with their adolescents showed an increase in positive parenting. Invariance analyses revealed similarity between fathers and mothers in terms of the impact of stress on parenting. The significant effects of both cultural and relationship stressors on parenting call for stronger clinical and settlement support for immigrant parents' adjustment, as well as more family-oriented immigration policies. What is the public significance of this article?This study suggests that the stress associated with adapting to a new culture can have negative long-term effects on Chinese Canadian immigrants' parenting, whereas conflicts within the parentchild relationship may in fact be a stimulant for increasing positive parenting over time. These findings inform those involved in supporting immigrants' adjustment and well-being to carefully consider the role of both cultural and relational stressors in efforts to foster healthy family relationships and parenting.

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This article reviews and critiques the current immigration policies in Canada, which are increasingly focused primarily on economic considerations. Data from a sample of 182 immigrant Chinese families (including mothers, fathers, and adolescents) are used to illustrate disconnections between immigration policy and the experiences of immigrants to Canada. The current individually-oriented immigration class system does not recognize non-economic motivations for immigration among principal applicants (e.g., for children’s future prospects) or the economic contributions of accompanying spouses. We argue for the incorporation of a long-term family-based lens for creating and evaluating immigration policy, one which accounts for the sacrifices parents make for their children and the contributions to Canadian society made by this next generation of Canadians. Furthermore, we caution against adopting policies that, over time, may limit the cultural diversity of new Canadians. We argue that supporting immigrants’ ability to be bicultural promotes multiculturalism, which benefits all of Canadian society. Cet article fait la critique des politiques d’immigration actuelles au Canada, qui sont de plus en plus axés essentiellement sur des considérations économiques. Les données provenant d’un échantillon de 182 familles immigrantes chinoises (y compris les mères, les pères et les adolescents) sont utilisés pour illustrer les déconnexions entre la politique d’immigration et les expériences des immigrants au Canada. Le système de classement d’immigration actuel orienté sur l’individu ne tient pas compte des motivations non économiques de l’immigration parmi les demandeurs principaux (par exemple, pour les perspectives d’avenir des enfants) ou les contributions économiques des conjoints accompagnant. Pour la création et l’évaluation de la politique d’immigration, nous appuierions l’incorporation d’une perspective long terme basée sur la famille, une politique qui prend en compte les sacrifices des parents pour leurs enfants et les contributions à la société canadienne faite par cette prochaine génération de Canadiens. De plus, nous mettons en garde contre l’adoption de politiques qui, au fil du temps, peuvent limiter la diversité culturelle des nouveaux Canadiens. Nous soutenons que le soutien de la capacité des immigrants de devenir biculturel favorise le multiculturalisme, qui profite à toute la société canadienne.

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