Background In light of the current sentencing disparity (18:1) between crack and powder cocaine possession in the United States, we examined socioeconomic correlates of use of each, and relations between use and arrest, to determine who may be at highest risk for arrest and imprisonment. Methods We conducted secondary data analyses on the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2009–2012. Data were analyzed for adults age ≥18 to determine associations between use and arrest. Socioeconomic correlates of lifetime and annual use of powder cocaine and of crack were delineated using multivariable logistic regression and correlates of frequency of recent use were examined using generalized negative binomial regression. Results Crack users were at higher risk than powder cocaine users for reporting a lifetime arrest or multiple recent arrests. Racial minorities were at low risk for powder cocaine use and Hispanics were at low risk for crack use. Blacks were at increased risk for lifetime and recent crack use, but not when controlling for other socioeconomic variables. However, blacks who did use either powder cocaine or crack tended to use at higher frequencies. Higher education and higher family income were negatively associated with crack use although these factors were sometimes risk factors for powder cocaine use. Conclusions Crack users are at higher risk of arrest and tend to be of lower socioeconomic status compared to powder cocaine users. These findings can inform US Congress as they review the proposed Smarter Sentencing Act of 2014, which would help eliminate cocaine-related sentencing disparities.

Teeth with two or more cusps have arisen independently from an ancestral unicuspid condition in a variety of vertebrate lineages, including sharks, teleost fishes, amphibians, lizards, and mammals. One potential explanation for the repeated origins of multicuspid teeth is the existence of multiple adaptive pathways leading to them, as suggested by their different uses in these lineages. Another is that the addition of cusps required only minor changes in genetic pathways regulating tooth development. Here we provide support for the latter hypothesis by demonstrating that manipulation of the levels of Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) or Bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) signaling produces bicuspid teeth in the zebrafish (Danio rerio), a species lacking multicuspid teeth in its ancestry. The generality of these results for teleosts is suggested by the conversion of unicuspid pharyngeal teeth into bicuspid teeth by similar manipulations of the Mexican Tetra (Astyanax mexicanus). That these manipulations also produced supernumerary teeth in both species supports previous suggestions of similarities in the molecular control of tooth and cusp number. We conclude that despite their apparent complexity, the evolutionary origin of multicuspid teeth is positively constrained, likely requiring only slight modifications of a pre-existing mechanism for patterning the number and spacing of individual teeth.

ObjectiveThere has been a rapid increase in the use of waterpipe tobacco and non-tobacco based shisha in many countries. Understanding the impact and effects of second-hand smoke (SHS) from cigarette was a crucial factor in reducing cigarette use, leading to clean indoor air laws and smoking bans. This article reviews what is known about the effects of SHS exposure from waterpipes.Data sourcesWe used PubMed and EMBASE to review the literature. Articles were grouped into quantitative measures of air quality and biological markers, health effects, exposure across different settings, different types of shisha and use in different countries.Study selectionCriteria for study selection were based on the key words related to SHS: waterpipe, hookah, shisha and third-hand smoke.Data extractionIndependent extraction with two reviewers was performed with inclusion criteria applied to articles on SHS and waterpipe/hookah/shisha. We excluded articles related to pregnancy or prenatal exposure to SHS, animal studies, and non-specific source of exposure as well as articles not written in English.Data synthesisA primary literature search yielded 54 articles, of which only 11 were included based on relevance to SHS from a waterpipe/hookah/shisha.ConclusionsThe negative health consequences of second-hand waterpipe exposure have major implications for clean indoor air laws and for occupational safety. There exists an urgent need for public health campaigns about the effects on children and household members from smoking waterpipe at home, and for further development and implementation of regulations to protect the health of the public from this rapidly emerging threat.

Background The United States needs to increase access to effective obesity prevention and treatment programming for impoverished youth at risk for health disparities. Although recommended, schools have difficulty consistently implement evidence-based obesity programing. We report on the effectiveness of adding structured nutrition education and minimum physical activity (PA) requirements to standard middle school after-school programming. Methods Using a longitudinal pre-post study design, we evaluated program effectiveness at one year on target behaviors on students recruited during three consecutive school years (2016–2018). We used generalized linear (or logistic) mixed-effects modeling to determine: 1) impact on healthy weight and target healthy behavior attainment, and 2) whether target behavior improvement and weight change were associated with after-school program attendance. The seven target behaviors relate to eating healthy, physical activity, and sleep. Results Over the three years, a total of 76 students enrolled and completed one year of programming (62% Hispanic, 46% girls, 72% with BMI > 85th %ile, 49% with BMI > 95th %ile). Of students with BMI > 85th %ile, 44% maintained or decreased BMI Z-score. There were improvements (non-significant) in BMI Z-score and the adoption of four healthy eating behaviors: fruit, vegetables, sugar-free beverages, and unhealthy snack food. Students with higher after-school attendance (> 75%) had greater improvements (non-significant) in composite behavior scores, BMI Z-score, and in most target behaviors (5/7) than students with lower after-school attendance (< 75%). Sleep improvements were significantly associated with BMI Z-score decrease (Beta = − 0.05, 95% CI (− 0.1,-0.003), p = 0.038.) Conclusions Enhancement of existing after-school programming with structured nutrition education and minimum physical activity requirements demonstrates positive improvements in several health behaviors and weight outcomes. Adopting enhanced after-school programming increases access to health activities and may bring us closer to solving obesity in at-risk youth in impoverished communities. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.govidentifier (NCT number):NCT03565744. Registered 21 June 2018 – Retrospectively registered.

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