Energy drinks are available worldwide and frequently consumed to increase energy level and compensate lack of sleep. Energy drinks consumers aim to improve their cognitive functions. Red Bull is the most popular energy drink consumed in Egypt. However, the link between the impact of energy drinks on the structure of hippocampal cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) and dentate gyrus (DG), a highly vulnerable brain regions to various insults, has not yet documented. To study the effect of energy drinks on structure of hippocampal CA1 and DG of adult male albino rats. Twenty one adult male albino rats were divided into three groups; group I control group, groups II and III received Red Bull, with a dose of 3.75 ml/kg/day orally using gastric tube for four and eight consecutive weeks respectively. At the end of the experiment, brains were dissected and hippocampal specimens were processed for histopathological and immunohistochemical studies. Histopathological examination of hippocampal sections in group II revealed vacuoles, decrease thickness of pyramidal cell layer with irregular dark or ghost nuclei. However, changes were more severe in group III with cracks in pyramidal cell layer, massive vacuolation and signet ring cells. Moreover, star shaped astrocytes and glial fibrillary acidic protein immuno-reactivity were more abundant in group III than in group II. Caffeinated energy drinks produced neurodegenerative changes and reactive astrocytosis in hippocampal CA1 and DG of adult male albino rats. These changes were duration-dependent being more severe in longer duration of intake.

Valproic acid (VPA) is used as an anticonvulsant for the treatment of epilepsy. It is also used as one of the mood stabilizing agents in patients with anxiety disorder and as a prophylactic treatment of migraine. The need for anticonvulsant prophylaxis in women of childbearing period is essential since convulsive seizures are considered harmful to the developing embryo. Exposure to VPA during the first trimester of pregnancy was found to be associated with increased risks of several congenital malformations and also in utero exposure to VPA in rats caused cerebellar anomalies. Folic acid (vitamin B9) is essential for the DNA synthesis and certain biological reactions. Adequate folate intake helped in protection against congenital malformations including neural tube defects. Aim of the work: To investigate the effect of prenatal exposure to valproic acid on the cerebellum of albino rat's offspring and to clarify the possible protective role of folic acid. Material and Methods: Twenty four pregnant albino rats were divided into four groups, six rats each. Group (A); a control group. Group (B); rats received sodium valproate (400 mg/Kg. B.W) starting on gestational day 13 daily till the end of pregnancy by oral gavage. Group (C); rats received folic acid (4 mg/Kg. B.W) starting from first day of pregnancy daily till the end of pregnancy by oral gavage. Group (D); rats received folic acid as in group (C) concomitantly with sodium valproate as in group (B) by oral gavage. At the end of the experiment, six male pups from each group were sacrificed on the postnatal day 14. The cerebella were extracted and processed for light microscopic examination using H&E for paraffin sections and toluidine blue for semi-thin sections. Also immuno-histochemistry technique for glial fibrillar acidic protein (GFAP) was applied to demonstrate astrocytes. Morphometric study was conducted to measure the thickness of cerebellar cortex, count the number of apparently normal Purkinje cells and number of Bergmann cells and calculate GFAP percentage area. Results: The cerebellar cortex of the control group (A) consisted of three layers; the molecular layer, the Purkinje cell layer and the granular layer. The molecular layer appeared pale with few stellate cells and basket cells. The Purkinje cell layer consisted of Purkinje cells arranged in single row with their oval or flask shaped cell bodies, pale central nuclei and apical cytoplasmic cones. The granular layer consisted of deeply stained rounded small granule cells. This general architecture of the cerebellar cortex was greatly affected in group (B) and an external granular layer was detected on the cerebellar surface in some sections. The Purkinje cells appeared degenerated with pyknotic nuclei and the number of apparently normal cells was statistically decreased compared to control. The number of Bergmann cells was statistically significantly increased. Some granule cells were degenerated with pyknotic nuclei. Also astrocytes showed a strong positive reaction to GFAP with statistically s...

Management of diabetic nephropathy (DN) is far from satisfactory. There is a rising role of the involvement of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) pathway in the pathogenesis of DN. This study aimed at investigating the renoprotective effects of PI3K/AKT pathway via sitagliptin in a rat model of DN. Thirty-two male Wistar rats were divided into four groups (eight rats each): (I) control, (II) sitagliptin, (III) DN, and (IV) DN + sitagliptin. Fasting blood glucose (FBG), kidney index, and kidney function tests in both blood and urine were measured. The levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and gene expressions of PI3K, pPI3K, AKT, and pAKT in renal tissue were detected. Renal histopathological and immunohistochemical studies were evaluated. DN + sitagliptin group showed significant decrease in FBG and kidney index, improvement in kidney function tests, and a decrease in levels of TNF-α and TGF-β in renal tissues compared with DN group. This was associated with significant increase in SOD and gene expressions of PI3K and AKT and their phosphorylated active forms in renal tissue in DN + sitagliptin group compared with DN group. Moreover, DN + sitagliptin group showed apparent decrease in amount of collagen fibers and expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) compared with DN group. This work shows that sitagliptin improved renal functions and histopathological changes, impeded inflammation, and oxidative stress and upregulated PI3K/AKT pathway which highlights its renoprotective effects in a rat model of DN.

Background: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is considered a reliable technique for the evaluation of the different causes of shoulder pain. The anatomy of the shoulder is unique, with amazing flexibility and range of motion. Many causes of painful shoulder syndrome are there; shoulder impingement come on top of the list, large number of factors could cause shoulder impingement syndrome. Two major categories were identified: structural factors and functional factors.

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