No abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused global disruption, with the emergence of this and other pandemics having been linked to habitat encroachment and/or wildlife exploitation. High impacts of COVID-19 are apparent in some countries with large tropical peatland areas, some of which are relatively poorly resourced to tackle disease pandemics. Despite this, no previous investigation has considered tropical peatlands in the context of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). Here, we review: (i) the potential for future EIDs arising from tropical peatlands; (ii) potential threats to tropical peatland conservation and local communities from COVID-19; and (iii) potential steps to help mitigate these risks. We find that high biodiversity in tropical peat-swamp forests, including presence of many potential vertebrate and invertebrate vectors, combined, in places, with high levels of habitat disruption and wildlife harvesting represent suitable conditions for potential zoonotic EID (re-)emergence. Although impossible to predict precisely, we identify numerous potential threats to tropical peatland conservation and local communities from the COVID-19 pandemic. This includes impacts on public health, with the potential for haze pollution from peatland fires to increase COVID-19 susceptibility a noted concern; and on local economies, livelihoods and food security, where impacts will likely be greater in remote communities with limited/no medical facilities that depend heavily on external trade. Research, training, education, conservation and restoration activities are also being affected, particularly those involving physical groupings and international travel, some of which may result in increased habitat encroachment, wildlife harvesting or fire, and may therefore precipitate longer-term negative impacts, including those relating to disease pandemics. We conclude that sustainable management of tropical peatlands and their wildlife is important for mitigating impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, and reducing the potential for future zoonotic EID emergence and severity, thus strengthening arguments for their conservation and restoration. To support this, we list seven specific recommendations relating to sustainable management of tropical peatlands in the context of COVID-19/disease pandemics, plus mitigating the current impacts of COVID-19 and reducing potential future zoonotic EID risk in these localities. Our discussion and many of the issues raised should also be relevant for non-tropical peatland areas and in relation to other (pandemic-related) sudden socio-economic shocks that may occur in future.

This article argues that rather than being an automatic consequence of the rising importance of palm oil in Indonesia’s economy, the inclusion of palm oil in Indonesia’s set of national interest priorities in its international relations was a result of an intentional campaign run by palm oil companies. Taking the subjectivist assumption on national interest as the starting point and drawing on the narrative policy analysis literature, this study investigates the process of inclusion by unpacking the discursive framework that enables such a process to be successful. It finds that palm oil companies employed “objectification” to frame the growth of the palm oil industry as a shared interest of the public and “delegitimization” to frame opposing voices as the manifestations of foreign interests. Such discursive frameworks provided unambiguous and straightforward foreign policy direction, but at the same time prevented a more comprehensive understanding of the complex issue of palm oil.

Shodaqoh refers to all alms-giving except the obligatory zakat. It must be noted, though, that the word "shodaqoh" is sometimes used in the Qur'an to refer to zakat. The difference between infaq and shodaqoh is not really clear and the terms are often used interchangeably, but infaq usually refers to monetary charity, while shodaqoh is not limited to cash exchanges. In Indonesia, the designation "Zakat-Infaq-Shodaqoh" (ZIS) is used to explain that the institution is managing all kinds of religious alms. 12 Law Number 41 / 2004 on w aqf defines "waqf" as "a legal act of a person (i.e., "waqif") to dedicate his/ her wealth or a portion of it to be used/ disbursed for religious projects (e.g., Masjid) or for the benefit of the broader public (e.g., school) in an unlimited or limited time." See http:/ /bwi.or.id/ index.php?option= com_content&view=article&id=58&Itemid=54&lang=in, accessed March 9, 2013.

There are persistent tensions of both a technical and political nature between Southeast Asia’s two major palm oil producers, Indonesia and Malaysia, and the sustainability governance mechanisms shaping global environmental and trade standards emerging from Europe. The establishment of the national Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO) certification standard in 2011 is a sign of discontent with the transnational Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) regime, sparking debate about the legitimacy of private governance models initiated by non-governmental organizations and companies in Europe. This article questions whether the adoption of sustainability norms by Indonesia signals normative convergence or the emergence of rival governance structures that challenge the state. Evidence suggests that elements of norm adoption and rival governance coexist in Indonesia and that ISPO certification is an ambiguous policy with degrees of internal incoherence. The ambiguous nature of ISPO certification gives rise to unresolved disputes over power and authority between various actors. This article shows how these disputes came into being by framing these dynamics as part of a long historical process. Novel insights are gained by employing the state transformation framework and the concept of governance rescaling. Within this framework, we argue that the ambiguous nature of the ISPO results from complex interrelated processes of fragmentation, decentralization and the internationalization of the Indonesian state.