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Lexical simplification–the process and/or result of making do with less words–can be studied in a variety of linguistic contexts: translation, the usage of language learners, the usage of language teachers, pidginization, foreigner talk, simplified reading texts for learners. It operates according to universal principles that derive from semantic competence in the mother tongue. By means of a comparative study of some of these contexts–translation, the usage of second language learners and teachers, simplified reading texts–the operation of these universal principles is demonstrated. Aspects of simplification examined in detail include the use of superordinate terms, approximation, synonymy, transfer, circumlocution and paraphrase. A distinction is drawn between strategies and processes of simplification. “Strategy” refers to the way the learner/user arrives at a certain usage at a specific point in time, and “process” refers to the systematic series of steps by which the learner/user arrives at the same usage over time. Strategies may be process‐initiating (e.g. over‐generalization, transfer) or situation, bound (e.g. circumlocution, paraphrase).

The following paper is an account of empirical research in lexical acquisition, an ongoing study whose preliminary findings were reported at the Neucha"tel colloquium May 1976 (Levenston and Blum 1977). A discussion of the research methodology has also been published (Levenston and Blum 1978), as well as an attempt to link this work with studies of lexical simplification in other linguistic contexts (Blum and Levenston 1977)-Before discussing in detail the current findings, it seems appropriate to summarize briefly the preceding research, of which they form an integral part.Our focus of attention is the QUALITATIVE aspect of lexical acquisition. We are interested in the semantics of interlanguage formation. Our basic claim is that L2 lexical acquisition involves processes and strategies of LEXICAL SIMPLIFICATION that operate according to UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES. These principles derive from certain aspects of every speaker's LI semantic competence; the native speaker is able, when the need arises, to express complex meanings by indirect means. The systematic relationships between lexical items that enable him -partly -to simplify are differently realized in each language. Besides the need to memorize vocabulary in the L2, the language learner is faced with the immense task of internalizing the exact nature of these inter-relationships between lexical items (Richards 1976:81). The learner's need to simplify is thus explained by the complexity of the task of acquiring command of all aspects of the native speaker's competence; his ability to simplify derives from his own semantic competence in his first language.Empirically we seek answers to the following questions: i) What are the PROCESSES' of lexical simplification, i.e. can we account systematically for the L2 learner's PREFERENCE for certain lexical items and AVOID-ANCE of others? U ) What are the STRATEGIES of lexical simplification, i.e. what strategies do L2 learners use to communicate when certain lexical items are not available?The basic research tool is sentence completion or rather, more precisely, minimal discourse completion, since there is no requirement that the test item be limited in length to a single sentence. Learners' and native speakers' performance in the completion of such tests is compared. Items are devised which native speakers, we hypothesize, will complete with a specific word. However, unanimity of choice among native speakers is rare, except in the

By modification of the known Bitter conditions for making N-substituted amides by addition of acrylonitrile to olefinic compounds, it is possible to apply this reaction to new monoenic fatty acids. Procedures are presented for the addition of acrylonitrile to oleic acid (2a), methyl m-5-eicosenoate (3), erucic (4), and brassidinic (5) acids, and the addition of acetonitrile to brassidinic acid. Yields of 54 to 80-84% of the respective monoacrylamides (10-12) and acetoamide (8) were obtained in crystalline form from the monoenic fatty acids by applying the proper ratio of reactants and by the mode of addition. Evidence is adduced, showing that it is possible to determine the addition sites in the Bitter products by mass spectrometry, and also that mass spectral analysis of Bitter products from olefinic compounds could be of general utility for the assignment of double bond position in the carbon chain.The formation of acylamino fatty acids of structure CHS [CH2]zCH(NHCOR) [ by interaction of nitriles and monoenic acids in the presence of strong acids (designated the Ritter reaction) is well documented.1-6Earlier investigators in the fatty acid field have noted that the CVmonoenic acids, oleic (2a)2b and petroselinic (l),2c lend themselves to smooth Ritter reaction with a variety of saturated and unsaturated aliphatic nitriles, dinitriles,8 and hydrogen cyanide, but in no case was the position of the addition determined.With the exception of 1 -> 6 and 2 -> 7 conversions, reactions of acrylonitrile with some other monoenic fatty acids do not appear to have been studied. Our interest in such a study emerged from a research project aimed at exploring the ability of Ritter-type products (6-7, 10-12) from acrylonitrile to undergo the Diels-Alder reaction.7We have presented here the application of the Ritter reaction to a variety of pure homologs of long-chain unsaturated acids in the Ci8 to C22 range (see Scheme I) and results of a mass spectral study of the Ritter products 7-12. Results of the Ritter Reaction.-The procedures and results of the Ritter reaction between acrylonitrile and a series of monoenic fatty acids described here relate to the following substrates: oleic (2a), m-5-eicosenoic (3), cfs-13-docosenoic (erucic 4), and íraras-13-docosenoic (brassidinic, 5) acids. We also included in this study the reaction between acetonitrile and 2b, and the catalytic reduction of methyl acrylamidostearate (9) into methyl propionamidostearate (10).The experimental part describes the series of experiments which give the optimum yields of once-recrystallized material obtained from a series of reactions in which variations in the ratio of reactants and in the mode of addition were studied. Other features were determined after three or more recrystallizations from acetone.(1) Deceased.(2) (a) L. I. ICrimen and D.

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