Alcohol is well known for promoting systemic inflammation and aggravating multiple chronic health conditions. Thus, alcohol may also be expected to serve as a risk factor in autoimmune diseases. However, emerging data from human and animal studies suggest that alcohol may in fact be protective in autoimmune diseases. These studies point toward alcohol's complex dosedependent relationship in autoimmune diseases as well as potential modulation by duration and type of alcohol consumption, cultural background and sex. In this review, we will explore alcohol's pro-and anti-inflammatory properties in human and animal autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune diabetes, thyroid disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis. We will also discuss potential mechanisms of alcohol's anti-inflammatory effects mediated by the gut microbiome.

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Data quality from a community-based, water-quality monitoring project in the Yukon River Basin. Citizen Science: Theory and Practice, 3(2), p.1.