Plants generally have the highest regenerative ability because they show a high degree of developmental plasticity. Although the basic principles of plant regeneration date back many years, understanding the cellular, molecular, and physiological mechanisms based on these principles is currently in progress. In addition to the significant effects of some factors such as medium components, phytohormones, explant type, and light on the regeneration ability of an explant, recent reports evidence the involvement of molecular signals in organogenesis and embryogenesis responses to explant wounding, induced plant cell death, and phytohormones interaction. However, some cellular behaviors such as the occurrence of somaclonal variations and abnormalities during the in vitro plant regeneration process may be associated with adverse effects on the efficacy of plant regeneration. A review of past studies suggests that, in some cases, regeneration in plants involves the reprogramming of distinct somatic cells, while in others, it is induced by the activation of relatively undifferentiated cells in somatic tissues. However, this review covers the most important factors involved in the process of plant regeneration and discusses the mechanisms by which plants monitor this process.

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This research was conducted to understand the influence of foliar applied melatonin (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 μM) on two Salvia species (Salvia nemorosa L., and Salvia reuterana Boiss) under conditions of water stress. Water stress was applied using a reduced irrigation strategy based on re-watering at 80%, 60% and 40% of the field capacity (FC). Increasing water stress, while significantly enhancing malondialdehyde (MDA), H 2 o 2 , electrolyte leakage, oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and total glutathione (GT), reduced glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase (GR) activities, which led to a marked reduction in fluorescence (Fv/Fm). foliar application of melatonin alleviated the oxidative stress by increasing GT, CAT, POD, SOD and GR activities and reducing GSSG. In particular, melatonin heightened GSH content as well as the ratio of GSH/GSSG when compared to non-sprayed water stressed plants. Melatonin-treated plants had significantly lower SOD and POD activities than control plants under drought stress, while the CAT activity was enhanced with the foliar treatment. Essential oil yield of both Salvia species increased with the decrease in irrigation from 80% to 60% FC but diminished with the more severe water deficit (40% FC). Essential oil components of Salvia nemorosa were βcaryophyllene, germacrene-B, spathulenol, and cis-βfarnesene, while (E)-βocimene, αgurjnnene, germacrene-D, hexyl acetate and aromadendrene was the major constituents of Salvia reuterana. When plants were subjected to water deficit, melatonin treatment increased the concentration and composition of the essential oil. In particular, melatonin treatments improved the primary oil components in both species when compared to non-melatonin treated plants. In conclusion, reduced irrigation regimes as well as melatonin treatments resulted in a significant improvement of essential oil production and composition in both Salvia species. Plants growing in arid and semi-arid regions often experience conditions of reduced precipitation and erratic rainfall patterns. Water stress reduces chlorophyll content and consequently, photosynthetic performance 1-3. Severe water limitations can cause an imbalance between cellular redox components, where antioxidant defences do not counteract the greater production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This induces a series of oxidative damages, leading to impaired growth and development 4,5 and a reduction in plant fresh and dry weight 6. Additionally, high ROS concentrations within particular organelles can oxidize cellular constituents, such as membrane lipids, indicated by an increase in the lipid peroxidation by-product malondialdehyde (MDA), as well as carbohydrates, proteins, and DNA 7. Plants exhibit several physiological adaptations to deal with the negative impact of water stress 8. In order to cope with oxidative stress, plants activate their antioxidant system and the major enzymes involved are superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidise (POD) and catal...

Purpose Growth and productivity of plant crops are negatively affected by salt stress. Vermicompost leachate (VCL) has beneficial effects on plant growth in several different ways. This experiment was conducted to investigate the potential of VCL for raising the tolerance of pomegranate against salinity. Methods A pot experiment was organized to analyze some physiological attributes and antioxidant activities of two Iranian pomegranate cultivars under different concentrations of NaCl with or without VCL. Results Salinity negatively affected the growth properties of pomegranate, while foliar spray of VCL-induced salt tolerance by reducing the accumulation of Na ? in the seedlings. Leaf area and shoot and root fresh and dry weight of VCL-treated pomegranate plants showed a significant increase regardless of whether the seedling growth was under non-saline or saline conditions. Chlorophyll loss and reduced photosynthesis efficiency caused by salinity were also ameliorated using VCL. Foliar application of VCL also improved the activity of antioxidant enzymes and caused a reduction in oxidative stress and electrolyte leakage. Conclusions These results suggested that VCL could alleviate the damage caused by salt stress in pomegranate by limiting the agglomeration of Na ? and amending the activities of antioxidant enzymes by which the efficiency of plant increases.