a b s t r a c tOur investigation on macrophytes in Lake Qattieneh, a large, shallow reservoir in western Syria, is a first assessment of ecological status of this lake. We studied spatial distribution patterns of aquatic macrophyte vegetation and heavy metal concentrations to determine if they can be used as indicators of point sources of pollution. Industrial and municipal point sources at the lake shore increase nutrient load and contamination by heavy metals. Water analyses revealed high concentrations of some heavy metals at some littoral sites: Ni 88.7 mg L À1 , Cr 49.99 mg L À1 , Co 14.38 mg L À1 , and Cu 11.65 mg L À1 . Despite hypertrophic conditions and high heavy metal contamination, we recorded several submerged macrophyte species with heterogeneous spatial distribution patterns. Whereas Potamogeton pectinatus L. dominates in the eastern part of the lake, near industrial point sources, both Myriophyllum spicatum L. and Potamogeton lucens L. form extended patches in the western part of the lake. The shallow, littoral areas near villages are dominated by Ranunculus trichophyllus Chaix in Villars and Ceratophyllum demersum L. The west-east gradient in nutrient and heavy metal concentrations in waters and sediments are reflected by the spatial distribution of submersed species. While the heavy metal concentrations of the water body vary considerably in different seasons, the contents in submersed macrophytes integrate seasonal variations of longer time periods. Spatial distribution and tissue accumulation of littoral macrophyte species reflect the environmental conditions at respective sites such as heavy metal contents in water and sediment.

Thirty-nine sampling sites were selected in the El-Kabir River watershed, including 18 in Syria and 21 in Lebanon. Three major tributaries, the Nahr al-Arous and the Nahr Nasrive in Syria, and the Chadra River in Lebanon, were included in the site selection, together with Wadi el-Aatchane and Wadi Khaled. Instrumental measurements for temperature, specific conductivity (Sp. Cond.), dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH were taken directly in the water at each site visit. Measurements were taken in both countries . The interpretation of the data led to some specific conclusions on the conditions in the watershed. The waters of the El-Kabir River are derived almost exclusively from ground water, with many significant springs functioning throughout the year. The water that flows rapidly through the system is well-mixed and consistent in its major characteristics. The DO concentration > 5 mg L −1 , averaging 8.53 mg L −1 (three DO values < 5 mg L −1 were observed, all at the same spring). Some variability in water character was observed for Sp. Cond.; these differences could be related to the spring-source waters originating in limestone or basaltic terrain. Furthermore, an increase in Sp. Cond. in the lower reaches of the river might be related to salinization, resulting from surface water and near-surface ground water withdrawals for anthropogenic use, particularly irrigation.

In order to assess the quality of the waters of the El-Kabir River, which forms the border between Lebanon and Syria, water samples were collected for phosphorus (P) and nitrogen analyses at 39 sample stations in the river watershed (18 in Syria, 21 in Lebanon). These samples were collected on the main stem and three major tributaries (Nahr al-Arous and Nahr Nasrive in Syria, Chadra River in Lebanon). Three major springs also were sampled. The sampling was carried out in Lebanon. The P concentrations were extremely high throughout the watershed, as were the ammonia-nitrogen and nitrate-nitrogen concentrations, indicating extensive pollution. Although the nitrite-nitrogen concentration was relatively low, it is at the upper end of what might be considered normal, thereby perhaps being indicative of some anthropogenic sources. The spring waters were found to be polluted by nutrients. The nutrient sources contributing to the river pollution were mainly from piped, direct sewage discharges from the many settlements throughout the basin. These were supplemented by diffuse sources directly from agricultural fertilizer use and from the indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes into the river and on the stream banks and lands adjacent to the roads of the watershed.

Water samples for bacterial analyses were taken, when possible, at 41 sites in Lebanon and Syria in the El-Kabir River watershed. Samples were analysed for total coliform (TC), faecal coliform (FC) and faecal streptococcus. The Lebanese samples also were analysed for the presence of sulphate-reducing bacteria. The TC and FC concentrations were extremely high throughout the watershed, rendering the water unfit for any human uses. The origin of the bacteria is the untreated sewage waste from the numerous settlements situated throughout the watershed. This primary origin is supported by high ratios of FC/faecal streptococcus, although impacts from animal wastes also were observed. The bacterial levels were higher in summer than in winter, indicating a high winter river flow that dilutes a relatively constant source of human sewage discharged to the system. Spring waters also exhibited elevated levels of bacteria, implicating surface land use and waste disposal practices upstream of the springs. The data clearly shows that human health is at a high risk and that strategies for improving water quality and protecting spring water must be expeditiously implemented.

This study aims to provide information about the drinking water quality of two streams in Chakarkote Sai and Demote Sai and two rivers in Gilgit and Hunza. Parameters were tested including physical, and chemical. The physical parameters were temperature, pH, electric conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO), ammonia (NH4),total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and reactive orthophosphate (PO4). The ranges of these parameters set by WHO and NEQs, as most of the Asian countries also follow the WHO standards. All the samples were tested in the EPA certified laboratory of biological sciences department Karakorum international university Gilgit Baltistan. The minimum and maximum values of temperature 15.2-18.4, PH 6.78-6.09, EC 109.3-297 µS, TDS 53.8-149 ppm, Turbidity 0.29-88.4 NTU, DO 7.1-8.9 mg/l, TN 5.63-7.13 mg/l, NH4 0.0106-0.0151 mg/l, TP 0.042-0.143mg/l, and PO4 0.0059-0.016 mg/l. Independent T test was applied separately for both streams and rivers to determine significant difference of water properties with respect to location wise. Water parameters like DO and TP were significantly, while temperature, PH, EC, TDS, turbidity, TN, NH4, PO4 were non-significant in streams and TDS, turbidity, DO and TN were significant, while temperature, PH, EC, NH4, TP, PO4 were non-significant in rivers according to area wise.